Till Below, Astrid Artner, Rosemarie Siebert, and Stefan Sieber (2010).  “Micro-Level Practices to Adapt to Climate Change for African Small-Scale Farmers: A Review of Selected Literature.”  IFPRI Discussion Paper 00953, February.

This review article discusses the potential agricultural impact of climate change in Africa and evaluates the literature concerning smallholder adaptation strategies.

Africa is particularly vulnerable to climate change due to its geographic location and the political and economic conditions in many of its countries.  Average African temperatures are projected to rise by two to six degrees Celsius by 2100, with wide regional and seasonal variations.  North African temperatures may spike by as much as nine degrees Celsius above average between June and August.  Potential effects of these changes include more frequent droughts, inconsistent rain patterns, heavier downpours, increased risk of soil erosion and vegetation damage, increased evaporation, and water stress.  Desertification and decreased forest cover are predicted in the arid northern regions, while droughts and dust storms may become more common in the Sahara and Sahel.  Western Africa may become drier, and coastal regions may be affected by rising sea levels.

These changes could have a significant impact on African agricultural production.  Though some countries such as Ethiopia and Mozambique stand to benefit from longer growing seasons, the projected impact is on the whole negative.  The average African growing season will be shortened and large areas of “marginal agriculture” could become unviable for production.  One study estimates that the agricultural losses due to climate change will total 2-4% of GDP in western and central Africa and 0.4-1.3% of GDP in northern and southern Africa. 

The authors conduct a review of 17 studies on agricultural adaptation to climate change and identify 104 adaptation practices relevant to smallholder farmers.  Though the studies are drawn from various regions, the practices identified are particularly relevant to African farmers facing the brunt of climate change.  The authors group adaptation practices into five categories: farm management and technology; farm financial management; diversification on and beyond the farm; government interventions in rural infrastructure, health care, and risk reduction; and knowledge management, networks, and governance.

One adaptation is that as growing conditions change, farmers “may reassess the crops and varieties they grow.”  There is significant crop diversity across Africa’s regions—“sorghum and maize-millet in the cooler regions of Africa; maize-beans, maize-groundnut, and maize in moderately warm regions; and cowpea, cowpea-sorghum, and millet-groundnut in hot regions.”  These growing patterns may shift as conditions change.

Shifting from crops into livestock (especially drought-resistant breeds) is also an adaptation strategy.  The authors point out that livestock “may serve as a marketable insurance in times of hardship.”  One study found that rural farmers already shift into livestock husbandry during dry spells.  Another found that farmers try to shift into land with access to irrigation during dry spells and use cover crops to increase yields.

Hybrid crop varieties designed for African growing conditions represent an adaptation strategy with significant potential.  Varieties used to great effect in Asia’s Green Revolution have met with limited success in Africa due to different growing conditions.  The NERICA (New Rice for Africa) hybrids developed by the Africa Rice Centre are designed specifically for African growing conditions—they tend to be “high yielding, early maturing, weed competitive, and tolerant of Africa’s major pests, drought, and iron toxicity.”  A second technology-based adaptation is improved weather forecasts that provide crop-specific, timely, and intraseasonal information.  A third is the GIS-based decision support system for rainwater harvesting, which uses remote sensing and field surveillance to identify prime locations for rainwater collection.  However, the authors note that studies have found that farmers’ inclination to accept weather forecasts varies on a number of axes, including gender, access to irrigation or water storage facilities, and social networks.

Access to financial services also influences whether climate adaptation practices are implemented.  Credit provision, such as by the UNDP Global Environmental Facility and the British organization SOS Sahel, has had some impact.  One study found that 36% of farmers in one Sudanese village benefited from seeds and microloans, yet only 12% reported that these measures contributed directly to the success of their project.

Diversification into the non-farm economy is another relevant adaptation strategy.  The authors define such diversification as that into “non-agricultural livelihood strategies that are carried out on the farm, such as the sale of nontimber forest products, and activities that farm families undertake beyond the farm, such as petty trade or seasonal migration.”  Sources of non-farm income are numerous.  For example, one study in Nigeria identified 89 nonagricultural activities undertaken by women and 79 by men.  However, some scholars caution that diversification into the non-farm economy can sometimes cause ecological damage, soil erosion, and water depletion if farmers move into charcoal production or artisanal mining.  Employment diversification can also lead to income inequality and stratification of household roles.

The public sector also has a role to play in climate change mitigation.  Strategies include the construction of flood-proof roads and, because climate change may shift the areas of malaria prevalence, provision of indoor spraying and mosquito nets.

Lastly, knowledge management is a significant facet of climate change adaptation.  This includes research and development funding and training for farmers and agricultural extension officers.  Social networks can also be mobilized in adaptation efforts, such as farmer-to-farmer training and the collective provision or marketing of farm inputs.