Interim evaluation
The project covers the whole of the Province of Xieng Khouang, a mountainous
region in the North-East of Laos. In 1989, its population was 177 000 people
and some 217 000 in 1997. At Appraisal time, the effects of the war were
still visible: refugees just returned, infrastructure not fully rehabilitated,
weak administration, dominant subsistence economy. In 1997, the scope had
changed with economic liberalisation, road and trade opening, transition
to monetary economy, impressive growth of the Provincial capital. The Province,
however, is not self-sufficient in rice (total production 1995, 44 000 tons).
Livestock is a major activity, accounting for 110 000 heads of bovine (as
against 73 000 in 1989).
Project design and objectives
Target group
Project beneficiaries were defined as the households that were unable
to produce enough food for family consumption, that had less than average
productive assets and that produced opium. Beneficiaries were to be identified
in all districts of the Province, according to pre-established criteria.
Target figure was ambitious: some 13 000 families, i.e. half of the total
number of households in the Province, at Appraisal time.
Objectives and components
IFAD Loan 256-LA is part of a programme including the following components:
Xieng Khouang Agricultural Development Project, co-financed by IFAD (loan
256-LA) and UNDCP (LAO/91/551), the latter covering the Technical Assistance
component.
District Development in Opium Growing Areas of Xieng Khouang (UNDCP Grant
LAO/91/552)
Labour Based Road Construction in Opium Growing Areas of Xieng Khouang
(UNDCP LAO/91/553)
Initially, however, the Project was approved (on 25 July 1990) without
parallel arrangements for Technical Assistance. Those were negotiated
only later with UNDCP.
Project global objectives were:
Improved food security for households with production deficits to meet
family needs
Increased incomes for poor families ( below average)
Greater equality in access to resources and services
Progressive elimination of opium production
Project Components included:
An agricultural component mainly intended at strengthening the Province
and District Agricultural Services, with a main focus on training, extension
and adaptive research
A livestock component to enhance animal health services and to help the
farmers to stock their farms, through a mechanism based on Cattle Bank
groups
An irrigation component which targeted the construction of new schemes
(750 ha) and rehabilitation of 18 schemes (1950 ha)
A credit component initially due to be operated by the State Bank of
Laos
Provision for bridge construction (but not for roads).
Expected effects
and assumptions
The internal Economic Rate of Return (ERRI) was estimated at above 18%.
The Project was expected to have an impact on farm income, rice production,
women involvement, environment (reduction of slash and burn cropping as
a result of irrigation), opium production (reduction as a result of new
economic opportunities).
Evaluation
Implementation context
The project suffered delays and slow disbursement during the first three
years for various reasons which were extensively reported in the 1994
OPS report and in the 1995 IFAD Mid Term Review report. They include,
in particular: problems encountered with IFAD disbursement and procurement
procedures; priority given to expenditures made on the UNDCP account instead
of using IFAD funds; late arrival of the technical assistance (no arrangement
was made during Appraisal for TA financing; solutions were negotiated
with UNDCP only after project start; delays for approval and recruitment
occurred). Government also indicates lengthy OPS procedures as a reason
for the project slow start. Later, IFAD had to cancel part of the loan
(some USD 1.5 million), in particular because some components were financed
both by IFAD and UNDCP and the latter grant was used first.
A major change occurred with the 1994 UNDP/OPS supervision mission. The
1995 IFAD Mid-term Review Mission was able to notice the first positive
changes. Since then, the project has considerably progressed and it has
been able to largely offset the delays in disbursement. The various components
have been operated with increasing effectiveness, although with uneven
results. It is a fact that the project has now created a strong momentum
in the province and that it plays a significant role in agricultural development.
The assessment of project performance, however, has also to take into
account the major changes which occurred in the Province since Appraisal.
Over the past eight years, communications have improved, urban development
in the head town is booming, there is a banking sector, trade is flourishing,
in particular with Viet Nam, and in rural areas, self subsistence economy
is opening to monetary economy. Subsequently, some project approaches
and components which were justified at appraisal time, might appear inappropriate
in the present context. Their evaluation therefore, has to be made accordingly.
Project achievements
Irrigation. Between 1993 and September 1997, the project completed
21 schemes, including 10 rehabilitated schemes and 11 new schemes.
These schemes presently irrigate a total of 600 ha, and have the
potential to irrigate 300 ha more when the command area is fully developed,
bringing the total to 900 ha (equivalent to 25% of total modern irrigated
area in 1995 and 32% of modern schemes number). Project implementation
is through the Provincial Irrigation Service (PIS), and the beneficiaries
provide labour, local materials and even some of the capital costs. Another
8 schemes are planned for the 1997-1998 dry season, irrigating an additional
400 ha at full development. Overall, the irrigation component is very
positive.
Main strengths are the following: (i) good overall quality of
the works, (ii) concentration on small projects, (iii) projects are
"bottom-up" (requests from farmers, delivery via PIS), (iv)
training of PIS staff, (v) operation through loans to the beneficiaries,
a first in Laos (good for ownership, O&M), (vi) free labour, free
local materials, (vii) use of bulldozer for 1st cut of main canals (UXO,
unexploded bombs risk), (viii) good Government policy support (ix) effective
Water User’s Groups, (x) enthusiastic/motivated CTA and PIS staff.
Main weaknesses: (i) very little use of irrigation schemes during the
dry season, (ii) at some sites, poor construction caused by insufficient
construction supervision (PIS staff over committed), (iii) some technical
aspects can be improved (i.e. overflow spillways at canal intakes), (iv) very
poor quality works on one experimental design (Ban Nammen).
Livestock, Animal Health Support for the livestock sector was
provided mainly through procurement and distribution of cattle to livestock
raisers. The beneficiaries of the Cattle Banks (CB) were targeted with
interventions addressing disease and nutritional constraints of cattle
and, to a lesser extent, other classes of small farm livestock. Training
was provided for Provincial Agricultural Services (PAS) staff in the provincial
and district offices. Village Veterinary Workers (VVW) who were also villagers
themselves, were trained to provide animal health and other technical
services to Cattle Banks beneficiaries, as well as other livestock raisers.
Support for farmers was provided through VVWs in respect of vaccination
for cattle, buffalo, pigs and poultry. Trials were conducted under the
guidance of a technical assistant to identify suitable wet and dry season
pasture grasses and legumes. Extension methods were introduced to deal
with animal health and nutritional constraints. In 1994, credit for livestock
was provided through the Agricultural Promotion Bank (APB).
The distribution of 3,165 head of cattle through 39 Cattle banks has
reached 863 farm families from a total of 29,300 provincial households.
The project provided support for the establishment of a CB holding station
outside Phonsavanh where future repayment animals are to be held and conditioned
before redistribution. Cash credit became available to borrowers for livestock
through the Agricultural Promotion Bank, within its lending limits.
Twelve kerosene refrigerators were provided as key units for a cold chain
holding livestock vaccines at provincial headquarters and at the district
offices, although attempts by the project to transfer operation of the
units to the private sector were unsuccessful.
A total of 305 VVWs received equipment for cattle and buffalo vaccination,
mainly against Haemorrhagic Septicaemia and Black Quarter, and some pigs
and poultry were vaccinated against other diseases. Although not envisaged
during Appraisal, a Disease Diagnostic Laboratory to support investigation
into the causes of cattle under-performance was established.
Some 21 project staff were trained in livestock production subjects,
and 305 VVW received training in vaccination as well as a number of animal
health and production topics. In-village training sessions were conducted
in pasture establishment and about 500 farmers, received training in vaccination,
de-worming, the urea treatment of straw (UTS) and the manufacture and
use of mineral blocks and bone meal for supplementation.
During 1993-1994 about 66 pasture varieties including twelve cool season
varieties, were tested in two Training, Trials and Demonstration Centres
(TTDC) and in 22 different locations. A number of species suitable for
distribution were identified. Pasture demonstration plots were established
in six CB villages in 1996.
Agriculture, crop development and agricultural extension The Crop
Development component was set up to provide a source of improved technology
and a means to disseminate this to the target population. Main activities
to this end were carried out by the Provincial Agriculture Service, supported
by the Training, Trials, and Demonstration Centres (TTDC), and District
Agricultural Offices. The basis of the extension activity are Village
Extension Workers (VEW), selected at village level and based in each target
village, to pass information to the community.
Main project achievements include: (i) adaptive trials carried out from
1992-1995, and confirmed in farmers fields in 1995-1996; they provided
seeds of promising lines of maize and rice that have been distributed
to farmers in 1995 and 1996. (ii) training of both staff and farmers which
has taken place mainly during 1994 and 1995; however figures are not up
to appraisal levels. (iii) establishment of TTDCs; their number was reduced
to two. (iv) development of most District Offices, adding one nursery
in each, (v) some 252 Village Extension Workers were established at village
level. In addition, the project has developed the horticultural activities
within the project area following a consultant’s recommendation (1994),
through the introduction of improved fruit tree planting material from
overseas and local sources. This material has been planted both on the
TTDCs, and on the farms of village co-operators.
Strengths in the project include the integrated farming systems, and
very positive farmer attitude. Farmers are not adverse to change, know
their requirements, and have a reluctance to accept pesticide use. This
provides a very strong base for the introduction of alternative technologies
through an extension system. In addition, the project has effectively
followed consultant advice, and expanded activities to include nurseries
and fruit tree production which was not included in the Appraisal.
There are however a number of weaknesses: (i) alternative cropping systems
have yet to prove their financial benefit and sustainability to farmers.
Systems tested are not yet ready for larger scale implementation.(ii)
no effective extension system is in place, and staff attitude and the
linkage between different levels and organisations are generally poor,
(iii) farmer training has been conducted, but lacks a practical approach,
(iv) promotion of varieties have proceeded without sufficient farmer selection
and evaluation, resulting in the rejection of most of the rice and maize
seed distributed. Methodology employed was basically correct, but required
greater farmer involvement in the early stages, (v) TTDCs are not being
fully utilised, (vi) VEWs have been trained, but they need follow up to
provide them with the suitable technologies required at village level.
An unsatisfied need for information and guidance exists in villages.
Credit The credit situation in Laos at the time of project design
was difficult and there was only one credit institution in the project
area, which did not focus on agricultural credit. The Phonsavanh Branch
of the Agricultural Promotion Bank (APB), which started lending operations
in the project area in 1994, has rapidly expanded it operations, from
800 borrowers in 1994 for a loan total about of 300 million kip to an
estimated 4500 borrowers for a total annual lending estimated to reach
1.2 billion at the end of 1997. Recovery performance stands at around
95%, with some farmers late with their repayments; bad debt accounts for
less that 2%, which is comparable with a good private bank. Public Investment
Programme in Agriculture for 1997 is expected to be about 117 million
kip, while lending by the Phonsavanh APB branch will probably reach 1.2
billion for 1997. Public Investment Programme in Agriculture is thus about
10% of the APB Provincial lending program.
IFAD lending was about 14% of APB lending in 1994, and about 7% this
year. APB lending in the Province has been an effective development tool,
if there are adequate marketing outlets. IFAD financed loans have followed
the pattern of APB loans, with a similar success rate for the activities
financed and for recovery. IFAD financed lending was to be on market terms
(over 30% at the time) but loans have been extended to farmers at subsidised
government interest rates (7 to 10%).
Government explained that the interest rates adopted at the time of the
creation of APB reflected market interests, but there has been divergence
since then. The mission signalled that the two-tiered interest rate structure
that currently exists for APB lending (7-10% terms on government funds
provided to farmers and 20-24% on APB mobilised funds) could be problematic,
and that the Sayabouri Project recently appraised by IFAD would use a
commercial bank and commercial terms for the provision of credit to farmers.
At Appraisal, total lending was estimated to exceed USD 800 000,
but has only reached about USD 205 000. APB lending in the Province
has reached only 25% of the objective foreseen at Appraisal, because lending
started very late and because repayments by farmers are not being used
to establish a revolving fund for further extending credit to farmers.
This because APB is required to sign a special loan agreement for the
disbursement of each tranche (USD 50 000) of IFAD loan funds. The
terms and conditions for repayment of IFAD loan funds to BOL are laid
out in these agreements. For 1996, APB had to repay within one year. For
1997, APB must repay the total amount by 2002. The short duration of these
agreements violates the IFAD loan agreement. Because of the short duration
of the agreements, APB has had no opportunity to deposit farmer repayments
into a revolving fund established in the Phonsavanh Branch.
In addition to the above problem, there have been long delays (six months)
between the time that APB headquarters has submitted withdrawals requests
and that the Bank of Laos (BOL) has released the tranche of IFAD funds
to APB headquarters. Because of the delay in funds arriving to the Branch,
APB has applied IFAD financing to loans already evaluated as part of its
own Work Program, although it has also tried to focus on group lending
to farmers with a lower level of assets than those normally required by
its own policies.
Labour Based Road Construction Further to the successful implementation
of the UNDCP LAO/91/553 Project Labour Based Road Construction in Opium
Growing Areas of Xiengkhouang during the period from 1992 to 1995, the
mid-term review mission of June 1995 recommended that IFAD funds be used
to continue the programme. From January 1996 to March 1997, about USD
600,000 of IFAD funds were used to build 29 km of new roads, and place
a total of 17 km of road metal, all in Nonghet.
Main strengths include: (i) Labour based (income, ownership, construction
techniques), (ii) road building (access!) is the first step for any development,
(iii) overall: good quality (considering village built and price per km).
Areas of weaknesses include: maintenance, which has to improve. On the
technical side, cross drainage techniques/structures should be improved,
more steep crossfall should be constructed and larger stones for metal
on steep slopes should be used. Resources should not be used for large
bridges on major roads.
Project Costs The Project as appraised was to cost about USD 10.6 million,
with USD 2.8 million in Technical Assistance. IFAD funding was to total
about 5.3 million, co-financing was to total about USD 3.9 million and
Government share and Beneficiary contribution were to total about USD
1.2 million. It took about one year to reach agreement with UNDCP
about co-financing and for TA to be put in place.
The actual status of Project cost is estimated as the following: a total
project cost of USD 6.1 million, with IFAD financing of about USD 2.9
million, UNDCP (Project no. 551) financing of technical assistance and
equipment of USD 3 million and Govt share and Beneficiary contribution
of about USD 250 000. In addition UNDCP has financed two projects
which have been implemented in tandem with the Xieng Khouang Highland
Agricultural Development Project: the District Development in Opium Growing
Areas Project (Project no. 552) for USD 1.3 million and the Labour Intensive
Road Works Project in Opium Growing Areas (Project no. 553) for USD 1.7
million. The total financial support to the province of Xieng Khouang
of these projects stands at about USD 10.6 million.
IFAD, Government and Beneficiary financing of the project currently totals
about USD 3.15 million, i.e. about 90% of the loan amount after
cancellations.
The largest share of spending from the IFAD loan has been on road construction,
followed by livestock. If the cost of road construction is eliminated,
spending on livestock represents about 40% of expenditure. Government
explained some of the reasons for slow disbursement under the IFAD loan:
it is not government policy to use loan funds to purchase vehicles and
there was a lack of clarity in general about procurement and disbursement
procedures as a result of language constraints. With regard to the cancellation
of IFAD loan funds following the Mid-term Review, Government expressed
the view that this decision had been taken extremely rapidly, and has
meant that the project is now tight of funds.
Effects assessment
and sustainability
Project beneficiaries The project has been present in 112 village
(out of 506 in the Province), corresponding to 25 subdistricts (out of
50) and six districts (out of 7). The density of project interventions,
however, has been uneven: there has been a concentration in the Pek and
Kham district while the Nonghet district, which should have received special
attention because of the opium problem in this area, has been neglected
until the Project last years. These 112 villages total 8758 households,
of which 2225 have directly benefited from the Project. The cost per beneficiary
household is USD 1303, about three times the average cost in IFAD projects.
Direct beneficiaries include 863 households for the livestock component,
682 for the irrigation component, 680 for credit, of which 40% women Beneficiaries
of the crop component and of training activities are in the process of
evaluation. Ethnic minorities have also benefited from the project but
not in proportion to their demographic distribution.
The mission, with project staff assistance, has conducted a statistical
analysis of project beneficiaries income distribution as compared with
village average income distribution. An opinion survey has also been conducted
with about 70 farmers to better assess their attitude toward project and
their views of future developments. These surveys indicate that the targeting
criteria have been unevenly respected. Credit, in particular seems to
have been allocated to a number of farmers who were above the proposed
appraisal thresholds ( less than one hectare of paddy and no cattle or
only one buffalo).
Irrigation. The increase in irrigated land has mainly brought
the following benefits:
Increase of paddy areas
Increase in yields for existing rainfed rice paddies, as a result of
more controlled irrigation.
Decrease in slash and burn agriculture, as more rice can be grown in
the paddies
Increase in dry season crops, although still on a limited scale.
Livestock The productive impact on project beneficiaries to date
has been limited. Inorganic fertilisers are seldom used, therefore the
manure from distributed cattle has been the main contribution to agricultural
production on these farms. The reproductive performance and calf survival
of Cattle Banks cattle has been low whereas the selection criteria used
by project staff and APB for identifying project beneficiaries, did not
ensure the poorest were selected.
Supporting VVW to provide vaccinations to Cattle banks cattle has reduced
deaths to some extent, and has increased farmer awareness of the advantages
of regular vaccination for all stock. It has also resulted in husbandry
technologies being introduced to some villages. Compared to those provided
by the MA however, project vaccinations cover a small proportion of the
livestock population. About 1700 head (74%) of CB cattle were reported
vaccinated during 1995, and 500 head (19%) were vaccinated in 1996.
MA coverage for non-CB villages during the same period covered about 14700
(21%) and 10200 head (14% from the provincial herd).
Few villages made mineral blocks or bone meal after these were first
demonstrated and none have adopted UTS technology. The retail outlets
in Phonsavanh report only a small trade in these products. Conversely,
the use of Piperazine treatment for calves seems more generally accepted
and has imparted benefit, perhaps because of its availability, cheapness,
effectiveness and small labour demand.
Although some suitable pasture species were identified for local use,
a system whereby supplementary, dry season pasturage might be permanently
established, has not eventuated. Free ranging animals and the lack of
and cost of fences as well as common pastures management issues which
the project has not yet addressed, remain important social constraints
effecting pasture establishment and use.
The Cattle Bank programme was appropriate at the time the Project was
appraised although off-take from the cattle has been poor and the targeting
criteria the project used, have failed to ensure that cattle are directed
to the rural poor. Based on the calving opportunity for all cows since
distribution began, the 1,478 calves produced between 1992-1997, suggest
a reproductive rate of about 12 percent, or a to-date average of less
than one sixth of the Appraisal (80%) estimate. As a result, a number
of farmers may be unable to repay within their loan period.
Other than some reduction in mortality from vaccination, the project’s
extension activities have generated few identifiable benefits. The technologies
introduced thus far, addressing the nutritional constraints of cattle
and buffalo, were sound, but have not been generally adopted. There remain
important social constraints effecting establishment of dry season grazing
reserves and farmers continue to view a herd size as more important than
production efficiency.
Agriculture Mission field assessment for cropping and extension
activities indicated very little presence of improved seed resulting from
the seed distribution program. Only isolated farmers have adopted improved
seed as it did not fit their quality requirements. There were however
specific cases of benefits where individual beneficiaries had been targeted
as village demonstrators. Benefits from project intervention from dry
season rice production, water melons, asparagus, improved fruit trees,
and nursery production were evident. Since the appraisal in 1990, there
has been a dramatic economic change in the Province, making specific project
impacts difficult to differentiate from those associated with this change.
Credit Field assessment of APB lending in general and IFAD financed
lending indicate that credit has effectively provided cash resources for
a number of income earning activities; and in particular, women's credit
for weaving has appeared quite attractive and viable. Preliminary assessment
shows that IFAD supported lending seems to have gone to beneficiaries
with smaller plots than normal APB in the same villages. Comparison however
made with average land distribution in the same villages indicates distribution
of IFAD beneficiaries above average.
Roads New roads have had a significant impact in the Province.
They allow to get harvest from field back to village, and from village
to the market. They also allow access to hospital and children to go to
school by bicycle. In addition, they are expected to have an impact on
opium reduction in the long term. They will decrease the need for resettlement
of people. Beneficiaries received income during construction (over 500
million Kip), and some of this was reinvested in small scale investments.
Project management In 1990, the situation in Laos was completely
different from today: the number of staff working for the PAS was extremely
limited with weak qualifications and national management capacity was
limited. In 1997, there is: (a) a strong national project management staff
with good knowledge of international and national procedures responsible
for the management of IFAD loan funds; and (b) PAS which has managed to
implement a cattle bank scheme and has constructed a number of irrigation
schemes, both of which have been well appreciated by farmers. The management
arrangements established for the project in 1990 can not be the same management
arrangements for a Second Phase Project to start in 1998, and will require
a redefinition of tasks and responsibilities.
Opium reduction Opium reduction was a stated project objective.
Practically the project had only late activities in the opium growing
area and these do not seem to have had any measurable effect. Other programmes
components, carried out under the UNDCP Project - schools, health, detoxification,
educational information, may have had some effects but those equally are
not measurable. However national estimates seem to indicate a global reduction
of opium production in the province.
Main issues and recommendations
The conclusions which are drawn from the First Phase project are the
following:
Institution building has been a major achievement, as demonstrated by
comparison of present and initial situation. Enhanced experience in management
and skill development are also to be recognised;
Experience with group approach, for credit, irrigation and cattle banks,
has demonstrated its effectiveness, although often too much specialised
and insufficiently integrated with village other activities. This is due
to the fact that the project has been implemented according to a vertical
approach which has prevented integration of development efforts, particularly
at village level. As a result, organised groups - except for irrigation
- do not appear to have provided an alternative for participatory management;
Technical Assistance was essential for the project take off. Delays in
providing it was one of the main reasons for initial slow disbursement.
Seven years later, technical assistance is still needed but in quite a
different way: provincial staff has gained experience, know much more
about procedures and project management; As a result, present needs are
mostly for well identified support in specified fields; Such needs could
most probably be met under new approaches to TA;
Approaches to irrigation and labour based road construction seem to be
appropriate and should be continued. In particular, investment cost recovery
of irrigation work, which is new in Laos, has proven effective and has
helped development of a sense of ownership;
A number of activities, initially justified, appear uneconomic and seem
now less justified - as for the cattle banks. Concerning the latter, however,
Government has different views and is not convinced that this activity
should be discontinued;
Despite the training efforts, the extension system is still inefficient
and need improvement; and
Cost per direct beneficiary has been extremely high. This calls for a
better knowledge of project costs per unit so as to be able to adjust
project approaches in real time.
Justifications for a Second Phase Project The mission believes
that a Second Phase Project is justified and it recommends that IFAD continues
to be involved in the project, for the following reasons:
After an extremely slow start, the project has gained an impressive momentum
over the past three years. Performances against appraisal physical objectives
have been good;
The project has become a backbone of agricultural services activities.
Institution building and skills improvement - whatever are still the weaknesses
- have appeared an outstanding project result. Second Phase activities
could help bringing an added value to this institutional and human resources
investment. Government particularly emphasises this aspect;
Farmers are demanding more project support, particularly in areas not
yet concerned by the project. Motivations seem strong; and
The Xieng Khouang province is one of the five provinces which have been
selected for implementing the new policy for decentralised development
planning.
Development Strategy Context Since the first project appraisal
time, the province has experienced considerable changes; It has moved
from a predominantly subsistence economy towards a monetized economy,
improved roads communications have favoured trade with neighbouring provinces
and Viet Nam. The province, in addition has a significant potential for
livestock development, forestry, fruit trees (including temperate fruits)
and, in many areas, for irrigation. Provincial Government has embarked
on a long term development strategy based on irrigation, livestock - meat
and dairy -, and better management of the uplands where swidden cultivation
would be banned. Priority is also given to access roads expansion. A Second
Phase Project could support this strategy to the extent its assistance
could significantly result in poverty alleviation.
Suggested approaches A Second Phase Project would have to be designed
taking into consideration lessons learned from First Phase as well as
the changes in the socio-economic structure in the province since First
Phase Appraisal:
A major attention should be paid to setting more appropriate approaches
to target project activities on poor villages and poorest strata. In particular,
socio-economic surveys should be used to select target villages;
Targeting should be improved. An appropriate monitoring system could
help in a continuing assessment of the beneficiaries status and in adjusting
the targeting criteria and process;
Credit would be a major instrument to help target group farmers in developing
agriculture, livestock an other productive activities. It would have however
to be better targeted. Villages organisations could play a role in channelling
information and identifying borrowers. Credit in kind - mainly for livestock
-, which was justified eight years ago, is now challenged by a more effective
credit system and should be reviewed;
Group approaches, which were successfully implemented during First Phase
should be continued and expanded. However better integration would be
sought at village level by selecting the village as an "entry point"
for most project activities;
Villages would be considered as primary partners of the project. Their
existing structures should possibly be enlarged to include all village
groups and organisations likely to play a role in development (such as,
for instance, the Villages Development Committees created in Nonghet);
Besides activities which, in villages, could concern directly individuals
or specific groups, there are a number of other activities which call
for village responsibility or initiative. So are, for instance, activities
linked with common lands management, environmental actions, water supply,
social equipment, village nurseries, participative trials, etc. Special
consideration could be given by the project to supporting villages in
these activities;
Provincial administrations would continue to play a major role in project
implementation. However they should, as much as possible, move away from
involvement in production and direct execution of works to concentrate
more on technical advisory functions, information, the development of
an appropriate regulation framework and its enforcement, assistance in
programming, etc.;
Training at all levels would continue to be needed and should have a
significant place in a new project; and
Private sector involvement would be sought whenever they can operate
at lower costs functions now performed by administrations, as for instance,
constructions works, veterinary services, etc.
