IV - What are the Salient Features of IFAD Initiatives in Support of Indigenous Peoples?

IFAD has provided a wide range of assistance to indigenous peoples. With few exceptions, early initiatives aimed to increase agricultural production and income. In most instances, however, the specificity of indigenous peoples was not always taken into account. Moreover, most projects were designed without the participation of the peoples whose lives were affected by the particular interventions. Lessons from these early experiences and an increased sensitivity to indigenous peoples’ concerns and perspectives brought about second- and third-generation projects. These gradually focused on vital issues such as secure access to and titling of traditional lands and territories, enabling self-empowerment, participatory design and implementation, sensitivity to cultural issues, assistance in promoting intercultural awareness and bilingual education, revitalizing indigenous knowledge, fostering indigenous identity and self-esteem, enhancing the ‘agency’ of women⁵, institutional strengthening, and promoting apex organizations as a first step towards building coalitions of the poor. While the Fund has accumulated a wealth of experience in working with indigenous peoples, efforts to document the experience and lessons learned and to assess their impact are ongoing. This paper is intended as a first step towards knowledge documentation by providing an overview of the types of activities in support of IPs in the context of both its loan and grants programmes. It also highlights some of the main lessons learned, in the belief that these can be of value not only to IFAD, but also to those committed to supporting indigenous peoples’ rights.

This section will review some of the most important features of the Fund’s initiatives in support of indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities, being fully aware that such a brief analysis will be able to do justice neither to the subject nor to the wealth of experience.

Land and Other Natural Resources

Land Tenure

The earth is the foundation of indigenous peoples. It is the seat of spirituality, the foundation from which our cultures and languages flourish. The earth is our historian, the keeper of events and bones of our forefathers. Earth provides us food, medicine, shelter and clothing. It is the source of our independence; it is our Mother. We do not dominate her; we must harmonize with her. Next to shooting indigenous peoples, the surest way to kill us is to separate us from our part of the earth. (World Council of Indigenous Peoples, 1985)

Access to land and security of tenure are crucial to achieving the objectives of poverty reduction, more secure livelihoods for indigenous peoples, and the realization of their cultural value systems. Alienation of land has become a threat to the existence of IPs in spite of traditional land-tenure systems worldwide. Moreover, in several countries, indigenous peoples’ communal forms of land tenure and management are not acknowledged and often discouraged. In view of the centrality of tenure security for indigenous peoples, land-tenure issues are increasingly included in IFAD-supported projects.

In India, land-tenure issues were first addressed in the Orissa Tribal Development Project (OTDP 1987-98) through the regularization and titling of land with slopes above 10°. The project also conducted a survey and a land-settlement scheme that resulted in the distribution of 17 175 dongar (hill) lands to 6 837 tribal beneficiaries in the area. In India, IFAD is undertaking initiatives to revitalize and improve traditional tenancy systems such as the indigenous Mundari Khuntkattidars tenurial system under the Jharkhand Chattisgarh Tribal Development Project. Action is also being taken under the Andhra Pradesh Participatory Tribal Development Project (APPTDP) to have the Government purchase land on behalf of the Chenchu tribal community and restore land rights. In Ecuador, the delineation and titling of community land in the World Bank-cofinanced Indigenous and Afro-Ecuadorian Peoples’ Development Project (PRODEPINE) and legal recognition of the Ngöbe-Buglé comarca (territory) in Panama are other examples.

Natural Resource Management

The close interdependence of most indigenous livelihood systems with the natural environment, reflected in their ethical, cultural and spiritual values, means that indigenous peoples con offer many lessons not only for survival but also for achieving a better quality of life and managing the environment sustainably. In fact, indigenous peoples’ notions of development are holistic and hence different from mainstream development practice. They aspire to protect and enhance their identity and cultural integrity, together with their land and their right to self-determination⁶. In this context, it is even more important that development initiatives are culturally sensitive and take into account the needs and aspirations of IPs.

The concept of integrated natural resource management adapts well to indigenous peoples´ holistic approach to development. Since the mid-1990s, most projects have had success in improving the quantity and quality of agricultural production through development of environmentally sustainable cultivation practices. An example is the Management of Natural Resources in the Southern Highlands Project (MARENASS) in Peru, where irrigation, cultivation in terraces, and the use of organic fertilizers have improved the productivity of the land. Another is the new Ngöbe-Buglé project in which activities include fallow improvement in shifting cultivation, reforestation, soil- and water-conservation practices, microwatershed management, rural waste disposal, and natural resources and land-use conflict resolution.

Interactions with IP groups and international self-assertion by indigenous peoples have influenced IFAD’s development thinking, leading to considerable emphasis on self-determination of IPs. This is reflected in the mapping of ‘ancestral domains’ by IPs and the awarding of ancestral domain titles in the Northern Mindanao Community Initiatives and Resource Management Project (NMCIREMP) in the CHARM project in the Philippines.

Acknowledging the stewardship role played by indigenous peoples, IFAD recently approved a project led by the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry to develop and test mechanisms to reward the upland poor for the environmental services they provide. The project will focus on watershed services (by developing effective linkages between upstream and downstream water users), on carbon sequestration and on biodiversity protection. The project will build on existing models for quantifying, monitoring and verifying environmental services and their relations to land-use practices, tailoring them for the mountainous rural landscapes of Asia. The use of trust funds will be tested as a means to create a continuous flow of benefits to communities. Emphasis will also be placed on establishing supportive policy frameworks and dissemination of the lessons learned as a result of the action research undertaken. Given its innovative nature and its relevance, this initiative will be undertaken in partnership with a consortium of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (International Union for the Conservation of Nature, World Resources Institute and World Wide Fund for Nature, etc.), the private sector, and national and regional research institutions.

Enhancement of Livelihoods

Credit and Microfinance

People convinced me that I had to take credit and, yes, the corn grew better with the fertilizers, but as it did not rain, I could not pay the interest and this is quite depressing. Now I have debt, but no harvest and I don’t feel good. I have no income. I am worse off than before. I cannot obtain more credit and still it does not rain. It is a heavy burden to carry. (IFAD, Zacapa-Chiquimula Smallholders' Rural Development Project [PROZACHI], Guatemala, 1998)

In Latin America, early lessons with credit have shown that the absorptive capacity of indigenous communities is generally low. This is partly due to lack of experience with credit, and partly due to the fact that most of these economies are at the subsistence level or are marginally monetized. Another issue is the great risk involved in obtaining credit. Generally, indigenous peoples live in areas characterized by difficult climatic conditions, unproductive soils, or high vulnerability to natural disasters, which make a crop failure likely. Consequently, farmers become indebted and worse off than they were before.

On the other hand, microfinance has been one of the Fund’s most common interventions following the success of the Grameen Bank model. It has evolved and developed different models, including self-help groups (SHGs), revolving funds and special credit facilities.

Self-help groups. These are small affinity groups that mobilize their own savings, which are then used as loans to group members. Earnings from interest income are converted into group equity. SHGs have been particularly successful with women, especially in the IP projects in Papua New Guinea and Viet Nam, but also in many other initiatives supported by the Fund. IFAD has often facilitated the promotion of apex bodies or federations of SHGs.

Revolving funds. Managed by communities, revolving funds have shown good results in the regional solidarity funds in Mexico and the rural development funds in Belize, Honduras and many others.

Special credit facilities. These have been developed in China in projects such as the Yunnan-Simao Minorities Area Agricultural Development Project, aimed at financially vulnerable households, which provided loans to about 21 000 borrowers of a total of 80 000 beneficiary households.

In spite of some successes, microcredit continues to be one of the weaker points of development interventions with indigenous communities. This problem has been accentuated by the absence of linkages between IPs and the formal banking sector. The production-delivery orientation of microcredit has been another factor in these subsistence or barter economies. A new, vulnerability-based microcredit experiment in Gujarat may demonstrate a more appropriate approach for supplying microcredit to indigenous peoples.

Increased and/or Diversified Crop Production

In most of its interventions, the Fund has focused on increasing crop production to secure livelihoods, food security and increased incomes for poor and marginalized farmers. The Fund’s agricultural initiatives in areas inhabited by indigenous peoples have been similar. In general, the livelihood-security interventions have progressed from a top-down approach to a more bottom-up, participatory approach. Diffusion of high-yielding varieties, improved fertilizers, diversification/intensification of crops and other modern technologies has been used to augment production. In this respect, IFAD-supported projects in China have considerably increased household income through diversification into tea, coffee, horticulture and other commercial crops. In the Andean highlands, household diets have improved as a result of the introduction of vegetable gardens on irrigated terraces. In Guatemala, sugar-cane production was substituted by that of bush beans because of their higher market price. Production was increased by adopting a method of sowing in rows rather than broadcasting.

The livelihoods of IPs engaged in traditional cropping systems such as shifting cultivation have been adversely affected as a result of loss of soil fertility. In the North Eastern Region Community Resource Management Project for Upland Areas (NERCRMP) in India, the traditional jhum cultivation (shifting-cultivation system) is being improved by increasing the fallow cycle through adoption of nitrogen-enhancing technologies. This approach is also being applied in the Milpero (maize-growing) region that covers parts of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and the Yucatan in Mexico.

The Kamaiya Rehabilitation Package in Nepal is a unique intervention being developed to rehabilitate ex-bonded labourers and secure their livelihoods by providing alternative employment opportunities. The Oudomxai Community Initiatives Support Project in Laos will provide alternative livelihood systems through the development of sustainable agricultural systems and by diversifying non-farm income for former opium growers.

Off-Farm Activities

IFAD has recognized the value of the traditional, artisanal products of indigenous peoples since the beginning of its operations. These traditional skills, passed on by women from generation to generation, are being revived to diversify production and strengthen cultural traditions. In Latin America, IFAD has promoted the organization of women into production groups and provided market-related training. These sustainable initiatives are being supported by microcredit schemes in projects such as the Camelid Producers Development in the Andean High Plateau of Bolivia, where artisanal products are crafted of llama wool, and elsewhere in Bolivia, in Guatemala and Peru, where women are weaving textiles for sale. Although crafts programmes have been supported through credit and training in the Xieng Khouang Agricultural Development Project in Laos, emphasis in Asia has recently been put on innovations in NTFPs as a major source of non-farm income. The assistance provided to IPs in the Andhra Pradesh Tribal Development Project (APTDP) in India, through the Girijan Cooperative Corporation (GCC), was a very successful intervention, focusing, among other things, on the utilization of research and development for value addition. This has led to improved livelihoods as a result of significant increases in the income generated from the sale of a host of NTFPs (see Box 13).

Access to Markets

Several strategies have been used by IFAD to improve access to markets:

• Market information. Information and technology have been used to improve market information flow in Latin America (e.g. Guatemala, where IFAD provided computers, access to the Internet and training to smallholders in the Cuchumatanes region).

• Access to markets. GCC, under the APTDP, provided market access to tribal NTFP collectors. The Western Uplands Poverty Alleviation Project (WUPAP) of Nepal will arrange for NTFPs harvested by IPs to be purchased by a private-sector pharmaceutical company. More recent projects in Latin America, e.g. in Belize and Guatemala, are increasing their emphasis on improved market access. In the Ngöbe project, the expansion of the project area to include non-indigenous areas is designed to expand markets.

• Linkages. In the Yunnan-Simao IFAD-funded project in China, linkages have been developed with the international tea market. In the Camelid Producers project, IFAD is supporting measures to create linkages between communities and private entrepreneurs.

"Llamas have literally been what's kept us alive. They are our only source of work, which is why we want to produce well and work directly with producers. Llamas are sold for 250 bolivianos when they should really go for 400."

Enabling Self-Empowerment

The specificity of indigenous peoples is such that all initiatives affecting their lives require their early and sustained input to ensure that initiatives respond to their priorities and are in consonance with their culture and cosmogony. This, in turn, will assist in achieving sustainable development and will impact on indigenous peoples’ livelihoods and their environment. Interventions formulated and implemented in partnership with IP community members through their organizations have reached this dual objective.

"The objective should not be for the populations to participate in IFAD´s development projects, but IFAD that participates in the development process of the populations." (Statement by the President of IFAD at the World Bank Conference on Sustainable Development, 1994)

Participation in the Project Cycle

Earlier projects were characterized by insignificant participation in the project cycle. This resulted in misdirected initiatives of little or no relevance to the beneficiaries. A case in point is the Rural Development Project for the Guaymi Communities in Panama, formulated in 1983, which lacked participatory mechanisms and thus experienced disinterest and resistance from the population. The core issue of legalizing land access was not addressed and the project had to be closed with only 40% of the loan disbursed. A new project, based on participatory approaches, was designed. It closes in 2002 and is considered a success story.

Management of Financial Resources

IFAD has recognized that capacity-building, self-development and ownership can be considerably strengthened by entrusting communities with the direct management of financial resources for development work. The Fund believes that what IPs lack is not capacity, but opportunity. Hence in recent initiatives funds are channelled, through project implementation agencies, directly to interest groups promoted by the projects. For example, the natural resource management groups in NERCRMP manage funds for watershed and other natural resource management activities.

Similarly, nearly all ongoing initiatives in the Andean highlands build on the experience of the Promotion of Technology Transfer Project to Peasant Communities in the Highlands (FEAS) in Peru. This was the first project to promote sustainable rural development among indigenous communities in the Peruvian Andes by replacing the classical agricultural extension system. It transferred financial resources to the communities, and they selected and contracted the needed technicians. The community appointed representatives with access to a special bank account to effect the contract payments. During the first five years of the project, 2 666 extension contracts were generated, with a total value of nearly USD 8 million. The project completion report estimates that at least one of three community organizations that participated in the project will continue to hire technical assistants with their own resources after the first four years. In spite of other difficulties related to project management and the training and communication components, FEAS represented an innovative improvement on the traditionally supply-driven extension systems to make them more responsive to farmers´needs. This model is now being replicated in most of the projects in that part of the Andean region characterized by strong community organizations, as it has proven to be a powerful tool for empowerment.

Project Management

Indigenous peoples have been and are being included in project management and other decision-making bodies involved in planning and implementing projects. This has induced a real sense of ownership of the initiatives being undertaken. The NERCRMP and Jharkhand-Chattisgarh Tribal Development Programme in India, CHARM in The Philippines and the Ha Giang Development Project for Ethnic Minorities (HPM) in Viet Nam have project directors belonging to indigenous communities. In the Ngöbe project in Panama, the steering committee has 50% representation of indigenous peoples. Moreover, in most projects, IPs are represented in the project management unit (PMU) and project coordinating unit, and most field staff are from indigenous communities. In the Ngöbe project, an indigenous woman is head of the PMU.

Strengthening Existing Organizations and Traditional Governance Structures

An important lesson that IFAD has learned is the value addition of strengthening existing organizations and traditional governance systems for sustainable development. This reinforces the role of communities in the decision-making process and in negotiating or bargaining with other parties, be they local or national authorities, the private sector, or international or national development institutions. PCUCH in Guatemala, MARENASS in Peru and the Ngöbe project are illustrative examples.

A traditional governance structure at the village level (Gram Sabha) was also used in the implementation of several IFAD-funded projects in India. Through gender- and equity-awareness and sensitivity training, these institutions, generally male- and elite-dominated, were made inclusive and more representative and are implementing projects at the local level.

Coalition of the Poor

The Fund has also supported initiatives to build the social and political capital of IPs, and the participation of community-based organizations in the project cycle has been strongly emphasized. This has led to facilitation of apex bodies of indigenous peoples’ organizations such as federations of SHGs, cooperatives and other types. The promotion of these bodies ensures sustainability of the initiatives undertaken. Experience also indicates the value addition for advocating inclusion of representatives of these apex bodies in local government councils.

Legal Defence Fund/Provision of Legal Advice

Concern about the exploitation of IPs through circumvention of existing legal systems has made IFAD aware of the importance of legal enforcement support to indigenous peoples. IFAD-funded projects are providing legal advice to beneficiaries of several projects on such subjects as land, human and gender rights, natural resource management, marketing, etc. Legal assistance was primarily provided in projects that included titling of land or water rights, such as the Ngöbe project, the Upper Basin of the Cañar River Rural Development Project (CARC) in Ecuador, the Rural Development Programme for Las Verapaces in Guatemala and PRODEPINE. In the latter two, legal assistance was also given through Popular Coalition grants. Legal defence funds have been established in projects in India and Nepal to minimize exploitation and protect the rights of IPs and women.

Gender Concerns

"It is strange, but I feel my husband is supporting me. We are making decisions together. Before, there was much discrimination against us women. However, men are now learning to take us seriously. When we demonstrate that we are able to earn money for the household, we gain respect. This is something we teach our children and it gives me hope for the future."

Broadly speaking, the gender approach in IFAD has shifted from a Women-in-Development approach to one of gender and development. The latter focuses on the social, economic and political relationship between men and women at home and in society in order to address unequal access to development opportunities. In spite of more equitable gender structures prevailing in many indigenous communities, there is often a very strong division of roles between men and women, with domestic activities assigned to women, while activities related to community management fall in the domain of men. As a result of indigenous women’s exclusion from community management, they tend to have low self-esteem and lack of ability to express themselves publicly or to assume management responsibilities outside the home. IFAD-funded projects have promoted a range of capability-development activities to raise women’s self-esteem, create gender awareness in the community as a whole and strengthen women’s agency.

Early projects focused mainly on the economic empowerment of women, through improved access to small credit for productive activities and training. This had a positive effect on the social status of women and increased their self-esteem as well as their status in the family and community. Since the mid-1990s, however, IFAD has also promoted women’s participation in community organizations to involve them in decision-making processes. Ensuring at least a 25% participation by women in the various decision-making bodies of projects and credit funds has contributed to their further empowerment.

The socio-political status of women has improved as a result of successful credit management, which gives women confidence to move towards "credit plus" activities. For example, in some project areas, women have progressed from being members of SHGs to becoming elected representatives of local government, or, in certain cases, have even become the village headperson. The North Simbu project is an example.

	Box No. 9: Gender-Based Development in Traditional Melanesian Society - Papua New Guinea>
	The North Simbu Rural Development Project (NSRDP) in Papua New Guinea sought to address gender issues. A number of interventions targeting women were designed, with implementation being managed by the newly constituted Simbu Provincial Women’s Council. The large microcredit component was considered quite successful. A total of 600 microcredit groups were formed, managing 100 000 Papua New Guinean kina (USD 25 760), and registered an impressive repayment rate of 97.6% by 1999. NSRDP supported the Simbu Women’s Resource Centre with staff, training and resources in order to build their capacity to serve the needs of women. A significant project achievement was the increased number of women participating in the decision-making processes of local government. In addition, by replacing men as vegetable sellers in the provincial produce market in Kundiawa, women are now receiving a better income for their production. Source: UNOPS Supervision Reports and Project Implementation Document (1999-2001)

 

In Laos, the Lao Women’s Union plays an active role in the planning and implementation of IFAD projects in support of women’s economic (i.e. weaving) and marketing roles. In Panama, subsequent to awareness-raising activities, literacy training and increased participation in project implementation units, women are now also participating in the political-administrative entities of the Ngöbe-Buglé comarca. In the conservative Chortí communities in Guatemala, PROZACHI contributed to women´s engagement in community development (see Box 10).

	Box No. 10: Zacapa-Chiquimula Smallholders' Rural Development Project (PROZACHI) – Guatemala>
	Of the target population (5 200 families), 54% were Chortí, one of the many indigenous peoples of Guatemala. As a result of gender awareness-raising campaigns, women started engaging in most project activities. The introduction of the ‘development couple’, promoters that work in pairs to facilitate relations between women and men in the community, is being replicated in many of the region’s projects. PROZACHI helped 2 368 women obtain their birth certificates. By the end of the project, 2 488 loans had allowed women to invest in poultry production, artisanal activities and small enterprises. Apart from boosting household income, this also improved women’s self-esteem and strengthened their place in the community. By the end of the project, they had assumed leadership in community services such as the organization of children’s care centres, literacy, and training in preventive and reproductive health. To support this process, the project provided small loans to reduce women’s domestic workload (introduction of closed ovens and manual corn grinders). Source: IFAD, Completion Evaluation (1998)

IFAD is also supporting women’s rights in initiatives such as WUPAP in Nepal and the Jharkhand Chattisgarh programme in India. Gender-awareness training has been undertaken in many projects supported by the Fund (HPM in Viet Nam, Jharkhand-Chattisgarh in India, WUPAP in Nepal and several other projects across the Asia-Pacific region). In 1997 the Latin America and the Caribbean Division launched a programme to ensure gender mainstreaming in all projects and programmes through gender-awareness training of project personnel and national and local counterparts. This has had positive results in several projects (PCUCH and PROZACHI in Guatemala, Ngöbe in Panama, and MARENASS, CARC and the Camelid Producers project). These new gender roles are considered "a nice break from tradition".

Training and Education

Training and capacity-building, both technical and non-technical, figure prominently in almost all the Fund’s interventions in support of indigenous peoples. Only those aspects that are most relevant to IP culture and specificity will be highlighted here.

Functional Literacy and Legal Literacy

Since the inception of the Fund’s operations, functional literacy has been an important component of most projects. This has been successfully carried out through trials, demonstrations, farmer-field-school models, workshops, etc.

The IFAD-funded projects in southern Asia have provided legal training to beneficiaries on issues pertaining to land, water, human and women’s rights, and others. In Ecuador and Panama, with the financial support of the Popular Coalition, legal training has been provided on land rights.

Bilingual and Intercultural Education

The bilingual education concept was first implemented in the APTDP (India), with the introduction of a component emphasizing education in indigenous languages as well as in Telugu, the official language of the state. In a number of projects, including Ha Giang in Viet Nam, Oudomxai in Laos, and North Simbu in Papua New Guinea, bilingual education has been provided at the primary level in both the indigenous and national language. In Mexico, through the National Indigenous Institute, IFAD is currently supporting an initiative to finance community radios managed by the children in Mayan communities of the Yucatan. Bilingual education is also taking place in the Andean countries.

The Northern Mindanao project in The Philippines can be considered a watershed for IFAD, as it will promote intercultural education to ensure cultural sensitivity towards indigenous groups, including the Mamanwas, one of the most marginalized groups in the Asia-Pacific region. The project’s planning and implementation manuals (PIMs) place considerable emphasis on this point.

	Box No. 11: Participatory Formulation of Project Implementation Manuals - The Philippines>
	For the first time in IFAD’s history, project implementation manuals of the Northern Mindanao Community Initiatives and Resource Management Project (NMCIREMP) were prepared through a participatory process involving all stakeholders, including indigenous peoples. The manuals will guide implementation of activities benefiting indigenous peoples and will specifically establish procedures for delineating ancestral domains and mapping their current land uses, obtaining certificates of ancestral domain titles, and developing sustainable development and protection plans (ADSDPP) for ancestral domains. PIMs highlight the key role of the IP traditional governance structure in establishing selection criteria for the NGOs and technicians that will work in IP territories; in selecting NGOs and priority communities; and in training-needs analysis and formulation of ADSDPP. This structure will also provide training in cultural sensitivity, establish a code of ethics and set up a five-tier Project Oversight Committee. Source: Process Documentation Report (Department of Agrarian Reform and IFAD, 1999, 2001)

Exchange Visits

Exchange visits are becoming an increasingly important element of training. IFAD supports the sharing of experiences in natural resource management among indigenous peoples in the Amazon Basin. Another example is from the PCUCH in Guatemala, where community leaders visited neighbouring communities to learn about the re-establishment of social structures in conflict/post-conflict situations. The visits have the added value of stimulating self-esteem and social cohesion among the indigenous peoples involved.

Strengthening/Reviving Indigenous Knowledge Systems

The livelihoods of IPs can be safeguarded through the revitalization of indigenous knowledge systems and practices. Through a process of learning, IFAD has realized the importance of revitalizing traditional knowledge and blending it with modern technology.

Revival and Documentation of Indigenous Knowledge

Starting with APTDP, IFAD-funded projects have revitalized traditional soil- and water-conservation methods and cropping systems in project areas. Several traditional efficient and low-cost technologies such as percolation ponds, pitcher irrigation, etc. have been revived and they have improved the livelihoods of IPs. IFAD-funded projects have also supported traditional water-conservation and harvesting practices, e.g. tank irrigation, in all its project areas in the Deccan Plateau in India. In the Ha Giang project in Viet Nam and the Western Uplands project in Nepal, traditional medicinal systems are being strengthened and upgraded.

	Box No. 12: Revitalization and Dcoumentation of Traditional Health Systems - Nepal and Viet Nam>
	WUPAP in Nepal will support a pilot initiative aimed at reviving and strengthening traditional local health systems, practised by women, based on the use of medicinal plants. The programme will also finance establishment of community-based medicinal herb gardens operated by women. Their skills will be upgraded and a referral system to western medicine will be established. HPM in Viet Nam is incorporating traditional medicinal knowledge into its training manuals for voluntary health workers, and a booklet, Traditional Medicinal Herbs at Home, has been compiled. Source: IFAD Appraisal and Formulation Reports (1999, 2001)

Indigenous Knowledge as a Basis for Technology Development/Blending

There are several examples of successful technology blending in IFAD-supported projects. The most interesting examples have also introduced a research and development (R&D) component to increase quality and production or to develop new products (Box 13). In other cases, technology blending has resulted in more economical or environmentally sustainable activities. For example, in Belize and the Yucatan in Mexico, IFAD is supporting efforts to increase the productivity of traditional milpa production (a combination of corn and beans) that is based on slash-and-burn practices and the rotation of crops. In the Ngöbe project in Panama, assistance was provided in cultivating traditional crops such as corn, rice, beans, cassava and coffee, while new productive activities were also introduced: inundated rice farms, fish farming, rice-fish farming and integrated farms. In addition, environmentally sound technologies were introduced, such as soil-conservation techniques and the use of organic fertilizers.

	Box No. 13: Blending of Modern and Traditional Technologies - India>
	In the APTDT, the commercialization of R&D component supported R&D studies on gum karaya, an adhesive, which has resulted in the development of four forms of value added products, i.e. powder, granules, cream and gel. Training programmes were organized for tribal peoples in improved tapping processes. Within a short period, the quality of gum increased substantially and the prices for various grades of gum increased by up to 250%. Through R&D, new products were developed from the ‘cleaning nut’ or Aram (Strychnos potatorum), including development of a derivative that acts as a substitute for the water purifying agents Alum and Natfloc-2200. The bioflocculant extracted from the cleaning nut can also be used as a substitute for uranium and thorium in generating nuclear energy. Source: Project Completion Report, Ministry of Tribal Welfare, Andhra Pradesh, and UNOPS Supervision Reports (1996-2002)

Culture

Until recently, it had not been the norm to include activities geared to promoting cultural expression. However, in some instances, the Fund has supported the validation and strengthening of various expressions of indigenous culture, not only to preserve cultural diversity, but also to stimulate self-esteem, a sense of identity and social cohesion. There are a few examples of projects that have supported cultural festivals to celebrate the good results of project activities, such as the Chuquisaca North Agricultural and Chuquisaca South Rural Development Projects in Bolivia. The most innovative experience in this field is probably that of MARENASS in Peru (Box 2). A programme that addresses valorization and diffusion of indigenous cultures is that of the Regional Programme in Support of Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon Basin (PRAIA).

	Box No. 14: Regional Programme in Support of Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon Basin (PRAIA)>
	In 1992, following the Rio conference, IFAD granted USD 2 million in technical assistance to PRAIA. The objective was to provide direct support to indigenous communities to develop small projects that combined economic activity and cultural valorization. The resources are accompanied by training, defined by demand. PRAIA´s financial support to projects is released against proposals from indigenous communities or organizations and is generally small (USD 5 000-50 000). In order to supplement these amounts, PRAIA assists in identifying cofinancing opportunities (current ratio of funds mobilized is 1:2) and in creating alliances of similar interests and experiences. To date, 140 projects have been launched, involving territorial recognition, ecotourism, crafts, education, arts and culture, and microenterprise management, and many publications and conferences have been financed. The programme also envisages an enhanced flow of information among communities through exchange visits. This experience needs to be systematized and disseminated to have further impact on policy. Source: Evaluation Report, Technical Assistance Grant Proposal (1997, 2001)

Policy Advocacy

The IFAD-funded Orissa Tribal Empowerment and Livelihoods Programme (SOTDP) in India has advocated that dongar pattas (land) should be given as heritable rights to women, as opposed to the existing ten-year leases given to tribal peoples under the OTDP.

The WUPAP rights-based approach to programming is targeted at developing such an approach for projects in other areas with marginalized populations.

	Box No. 15: Adoption of Rights-Based Approach - Nepal>
	The rights-based approach to programming is being adopted by IFAD for the first time under WUPAP. It aims to address the high level of discrimination towards ethnic minorities and women prevailing in the programme area, as reflected in the Interim Poverty-Reduction Strategy and UNDAF Papers. The rights-based approach involves the following processes: (i) initially sensitizing communities and government staff members to human rights issues; (ii) offering financial incentives to communities that have met their social objectives; (iii) incorporating awareness of constitutional rights through studies and campaigns; (iv) promoting policy dialogue and advocacy through reporting of violations, training of rights bearers, policy reviews and dialogue with community organizations; and (v) instituting a legal fund to assist beneficiaries in legal matters. Source: IFAD Formulation and Appraisal Reports (1999, 2001)

Policy Impact

The most relevant impact on policy has been the titling of land rights. In the Alto Mayo Rural Development Project in Peru, IFAD made the titling of land to the Aguarunas a condition for loan disbursement. As a result, 60 000 hectares of community land were titled. In Panama, the Fund provided financial and logistical support to indigenous leaders and the responsible government entity to support negotiation of the delineation of their community land.

The Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development Project in Nepal has had a notable impact on policy. It led to the adoption of leasehold forestry – provision of long-term leasing of degraded forest land to landless households – as an official poverty-reduction strategy.

PRAIA supported the Ticuna Teachers´Training Project in Brazil, where the proposals on bilingual and intercultural education developed by this indigenous teachers’ organization have been incorporated into the educational curricula of Brazilian primary schools.

The effort PRAIA is making to disseminate information on the diversity of indigenous cultures in the Amazon Basin has had some impact on policy. An example is the ecotourism project Mapajo, in Bolivia, which started as a community initiative to diversify income and which the Government now considers a model for enhancing income, improving living conditions and ensuring environmental protection in indigenous territories.

Conflict Mitigation, Peace and Reconcilation

The APTDP offers an unusual opportunity to examine the role development assistance can play in conflict mitigation, in particular through assessment of the relationship between an insurgency movement (Naxalism) and the operation of a participatory development project in tribal areas.

	Box No. 16: Conflict Mitigation - India>
	APTDP contributed to reducing insurgency activities in the project area, illustrating that the Fund can play a facilitating role in peace-building, particularly in those areas in which protest movements are supported by people at the grass-roots level because they have little choice but to join, given their social and economic vulnerability. The Fund's facilitation role significantly contributed to greater awareness within government and civil-service cadres and to a process of change in bureaucratic attitudes that favoured more listening and greater partnership-orientation in the effort to promote the development of the girijans (tribal people). Emphasis was also placed on the need to address the movement through government social and economic advancement schemes, in addition to the law-and-order approach. The APTDP brought about the establishment of village tribal development associations, which engaged in participatory contract procedures for the construction of irrigation and soil-conservation works and related activities. This created an atmosphere of optimism and empowerment and weakened the Naxalite movement in the project area. Source: Evaluation Report, 2001

Similarly, development assistance can contribute to constructive recovery and create grounds for stability in conflict-ridden areas. The Fund’s experience indicates that, in order to address conflict and post-conflict situations, interventions need to be flexible and phased, with different priorities at each stage, and they need to be shaped by a long-term perspective. Most importantly, time is required for confidence-building among all stakeholders.

Reconstructing the Production Base and Focusing on Women

A critical step in moving from relief to reconstruction is to provide essential means for the rural poor to re-establish themselves as independent producers. In this context, IFAD has adopted a three-step strategy: first, provision of agricultural inputs to initiate production and establish household food security. Second, restoration of basic services, while inculcating a culture of interactive, cost-oriented service delivery. Third, infrastructure rehabilitation and institutional strengthening towards the delivery of development services to improve food security and income. IFAD has found it more necessary than ever to pay attention to women in post-conflict situations, because the number of woman-headed households usually increases after conflicts.

Rebuilding Communities

Experience indicates that fostering reconciliation at the community level is best achieved through enhabling the decentralization process, supporting grass-roots organizations and supporting, very transparently, community development activities based on demand. Increasing the community's control over living conditions has proved a process that consolidates peace.

Guatemala suffered one of the longest and most violent armed conflicts in the region. More than 200 000 people were killed or disappeared during the conflict, the majority being rural indigenous populations. The fierce repression and violence has left deep wounds in the population, expressed in violent conflicts within and between rural communities, fragmented social and organizational structures, and fear and mistrust towards each other and the authorities. IFAD is supporting two projects to reconstruct communities’ social structures and restore confidence in local authorities after 36 years of armed conflict, thus contributing to reconciliation and social stability.

	Box No. 17: Peace and Reconcilation - Programme for Rural Development and Reconstruction in the Quiché Department (PRODERQUI) and the Rural Development Programme for Las Verapaces - Guatemala>
	Both programme areas were hit by institutional violence in the early eighties and also had the weakest socio-economic indicators. Both programmes are executed by the National Peace Fund (FONAPAZ), the Government entity responsible for coordinating implementation of the peace agreement. In both, a flexible, phase-by-phase approach is being applied to ensure the building of confidence among the more vulnerable populations. The focus is on strengthening grass-roots and community organizations in their planning and implementation capacity. Programme management is decentralized into municipal offices, channelling most of the service-delivery activities through local NGOs to strengthen relations between the public sector and civil society. The Popular Coalition is also providing a grant to the Verapaz Union of Community Organizations (UVOC) to strengthen the negotiating capacity of their members in resolving conflicts related to land disputes. Source: Appraisal and President’s Reports, 1997-1999

Partnerships

Meeting the twin goals of attaining the Millennium Development Goals and sustainable development cannot be realized without entering into enhanced partnerships. IFAD has increasingly engaged in building such partnerships. For example, in Latin America, IFAD participates in an informal interagency forum on how best to accompany the indigenous peoples of the region in their development process. This partnership, initiated by ILO, comprises the Inter-American Development Bank, United Nations agencies, the World Bank and some bilaterals. IFAD has also developed partnerships with CGIAR centres and other intergovernmental agencies, including the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), with the aim of improving the livelihoods of the indigenous peoples inhabiting hilly and mountainous regions.

At the national level, in several instances, IFAD contributes to partnerships with municipal governments, community organizations and other civil-society representatives. The Fund also has a long history of partnering with NGOs in their capacity as providers of expert knowledge.

Recently IFAD has started experimenting with partnerships with the private sector to create market links between small producers and private entrepreneurs in order to promote commercial and technical assistance, e.g., camelid production in Bolivia and the rubber industry in Mexico. In Nepal, a public-private partnership involving a number of stakeholders is being initiated.

	Box No. 18: Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) Cultivation - A Model of Public-Private Partnership - Nepal>
	WUPAP in Nepal has a unique component for promoting partnership with the private sector to domesticate NTFP production and undertake contract farming with beneficiaries. The interested private-sector firm is an Indian health-care company with a subsidiary in Nepal. An ICIMOD grant will also be used to adapt domestication of selected NTFPs; an NGO is working closely with the private company to conduct trials in four districts. The trials will test yields, measure their economic and social benefits and recommend the most appropriate methods for dissemination. The company will provide the technology, select sites, and train beneficiaries organized in groups by the NGO. It will invest in technological trials, disseminate successful results, make planting material available, and buy back production at a previously agreed price. Source: IFAD Appraisal and Formulation Reports (1999, 2001)

Back to Top>

V - Lessons Learned

This review, without being exhaustive, indicates the significant progress made by the Fund in its support to indigenous peoples. It also points to a number of lessons, some relating to project planning and implementation and others pertaining to broader issues.

Project-Related Issues

Duration, nature of support and adaptive planning. Support to indigenous peoples must be calibrated to the pace of the changes and transformations taking place within each specific context. The Fund’s experience clearly indicates that in most cases it takes a long time to enable institutional strengthening and self-empowerment, which, in turn, allow for sustainable development and meaningful impact. Programme, rather than project, support is better suited to operations within indigenous communities. In fact, there is ample evidence that process-oriented, demand-driven participatory approaches, emphasizing self-empowerment of beneficiary groups and their active participation in self-development, take longer – at least ten years – and are more likely to achieve sustainable impact. However, this requires adaptive planning and learning, as well as flexibility in terms of implementation (scope, sequence and arrangements). Only in this way can the requirements and priorities of the beneficiaries be met, because these differ among communities and between groups within the same community.

Specificity and a holistic approach. As highlighted earlier, indigenous peoples’ cultures, behaviours and ways of life are different from those of mainstream societies. Culture and tradition play an important role in the concept of IP livelihood systems. The changes a programme hopes to bring must be compatible with this perception of the universe and must reflect the cosmogony of indigenous peoples. Experience gained thus far indicates that programmes in favour of indigenous peoples need to take an integrated view of their livelihood systems, without discriminating against any activity. Moreover, sensitivity to cultural issues and language is an essential ingredient. The promotion of indigenous languages, through bilingual training and support to bilingual education, seems a key element in the strengthening of indigenous identity. Similarly, the promotion of intercultural sensitivity training for non-indigenous populations seems required.

Strengthening traditional institutions and governance structure. In terms of sustainability of interventions, the Fund has attained impressive results by strengthening and/or reviving traditional grass-roots institutions as a medium for peoples’ empowerment. This has been achieved through appropriate training and capacity-building measures. In several instances, however, the governance structure of these institutions does not necessarily provide for appropriate representation of women and other marginalized groups. Experience in India suggests that, in some instances, dialogue and awareness campaigns may be necessary to ensure appropriate representation of these groups, and the institution of inclusive decision-making processes.

Indigenous peoples as main actors in the project cycle. IFAD has learned the importance of involving indigenous peoples in all stages of the project cycle and of treating them as partners rather than ‘beneficiaries’. Moreover, their representation on design teams has facilitated the process of ownership by the groups concerned. Recent experience in involving IP representatives in the preparation of project implementation manuals in The Philippines demonstrates the high value addition of their involvement also in this phase, as well as to the strengthening of partnership-building. In addition, the recruitment of indigenous consultants during different stages of the project cycle, the participation of IP representatives in loan negotiations and the recruitment of indigenous professionals as project directors and staff seem to have had a very positive impact on project design and implementation, and it may be appropriate to replicate them.

Rights-based approach to development planning. Recent experience indicates that in many instances, a ‘rights-based’ approach to planning may be required in implementing programmes with indigenous peoples. ILO Convention No. 169, the draft United Nations declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples and other international conventions that make specific reference to the special rights of indigenous peoples may provide a useful framework.

Legal training and establishment of legal defence funds. In many instances, training indigenous peoples, including women, in their rights has proven a powerful instrument. It increases their awareness of the claims they can make and provides opportunities for enhancing their political capital and their participation in the policy process. Similarly, the recent establishment of legal defence funds has reduced the transaction costs associated with legal appeals and has resulted in assisting some indigenous peoples in asserting their claims.

Strengthening the managerial capacity of indigenous peoples. Recent experience also illustrates the value of channelling small funds directly to indigenous communities and indigenous interest groups and of the training associated with this. In fact, it has not only contributed to increasing ownership of the initiatives and process but has also considerably enhanced the managerial capacity of the communities and groups concerned.

Central role of rights to land and resources. Many initiatives of IFAD have recognized the need to secure the collective rights of indigenous peoples to their ancestral lands and other natural resources. Through policy dialogue and specifically funded activities, they have assisted indigenous communities in obtaining these rights. In view of the centrality of land rights to the restoration of livelihood security of indigenous peoples, the Fund may want to consider, wherever possible, and following the example of the Alto Mayo project in Peru, making the attribution of these rights a condition for loan disbursement. Alternatively, funding could be set aside to provide technical and financial assistance in support of negotiations for securing land rights and boundary demarcation. Assistance is also required for the establishment of land-management plans for demarcated lands.

Participatory mapping. Recently, participatory mapping exercises have been successfully used to demarcate ancestral lands. These exercises have proven to be powerful visual instruments for discussing and reflecting on concerns pertaining to gender, inclusiveness and intergenerational equity. Moreover, they are valuable tools for establishing community land-management plans as well as workplans and budgets for implementing them. Visualization exercises based on the strengths of indigenous communities and on past achievements have been particularly useful in the development of such plans. Thus these management plans may become the calling card of indigenous peoples and provide concrete examples of their contributions to sustainable development.

Capacity-building for collective action. The concrete implications of the collective dimension of indigenous territories have seldom been taken into account. However, the few instances in which capacity-building for strengthening collective action has taken place illustrate the value of including this component in programme activities. Similarly, sensitization of staff from local government councils and related bodies to the issues and perspectives of indigenous peoples has proved a critical step for furthering collective action.

Funding mechanisms. Through the different funding mechanisms at its disposal, IFAD has judiciously and effectively used grants (technical assistance, the Extended Cooperation Programme, the Belgian Survival Fund Joint Programme, the Popular Coalition and the Global Mechanism) to finance innovative features for some of its programmes (including the rights-based approach to planning and/or those related to peace and reconciliation). These grant facilities have proven a necessary complement to loans, but have often proven inadequate to the task, pointing to the need to expand grant funding through the establishment of new funding mechanisms.

Gender. Since its establishment, IFAD has recognized the vital contribution of indigenous women to sustainable development. Since the mid-1990s, by addressing structural obstacles to the advancement of women, the Fund has sought to facilitate the redefinition of gender roles and relations (specific to each society) that influence women’s and men’s positions in the family and society. Experience has shown that efforts to enhance women’s capabilities to promote social transformation, agricultural and economic development, and the peace agenda have begun bearing fruit. To be effective, these efforts must encompass not only women’s social needs and economic empowerment, but also their increased participation in community organizations, thus building capacity and self-esteem. Enhancing women’s role in the family and society also requires the involvement of men. In several instances, activities to raise gender awareness within communities, project personnel and government staff have paid handsome dividends.

General Considerations

Beyond Projects

It may be necessary to go beyond the project approach to mainstream indigenous peoples’ concerns and perspectives at all levels and to carry out sustained policy dialogue with governments⁷. Although the right type of project is necessary to improve the livelihoods of indigenous peoples and enhance their resilience, addressing indigenous concerns encompasses a broader spectrum of issues that isolated projects cannot tackle alone (rights, identity, culture as well as social and economic development).

Issues at the Country Level

Country strategic opportunities papers (COSOPs). Experience in the preparation of COSOPs in Latin America and Asia has demonstrated the need to include IP representatives as main stakeholders and to initiate a process of consultation. Similarly, the hiring of indigenous peoples as resource persons/consultants has been invaluable in the preparation of profiles, which analyse country policies regarding indigenous rights and their concrete application. The inclusion of IP representatives in policy dialogue at the country level has also assisted in institutionalizing partnership with these groups.

Strengthening opportunities for advocacy and policy dialogue. The experience of PRAIA highlights the catalytic role that IFAD can play in raising awareness among partners and agencies of the need to mainstream indigenous peoples’ issues and the contribution to sustainable development that their values can make. Recently, the Fund has been working more proactively with indigenous peoples. This proactive role requires the promotion of enabling policies and legislative issues that, in the long run, are likely to offer more sustainable support to poverty eradication and sustainable development. Since many of these issues would call for substantial leverage with the governments concerned, establishing strategic partnerships with like-minded agencies is of critical importance to IFAD.

Issues at a Higher Level

Mainstreaming indigenous peoples’ concerns at all levels. Although the last decade has witnessed enormous progress in bringing indigenous peoples’ concerns and perspectives to arenas at different levels, much remains to be done. Providing sustained support to the mainstreaming of indigenous peoples’ issues at all levels (global, regional, national, local) would ensure that their concerns and perspectives remain high on the political agenda at all levels as well. The Fund could play a catalytic role in facilitating enhanced partnerships with like-minded agencies to further the cause of indigenous peoples.

Communication strategy and systematization of experience-sharing. Discussions at a recent informal interagency forum in Latin America indicate that successful programmes with indigenous peoples often offer a space for reflection and experience-sharing that could prove very valuable at the country, regional and global level. It would be useful to systematize this process and adopt relevant communication strategies. The experience of electronic networks such as FIDAMERICA, FIDAFRICA, ENRAP and others could form the basis for an interregional ‘best-experiences’ platform. As a first step, this would require the creation of a neutral website, in collaboration with both IP representatives and funding agencies.

Back to Top>

 

Annex - Important Milestones Related to Indigenous Issues

• Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, adopted by ILO (1989), is the first international instrument dealing with protecting multiculturalism by ensuring indigenous peoples’ rights over their legal status, lands, internal structure and development model.⁸

• The World Conference on Human Rights (1993) explicitly highlights the commitment of the international community towards indigenous peoples to ensure their economic, social and cultural well-being, and underlines that states should take concerted positive steps to ensure respect for human rights, recognizing the value of the diversity of the distinct identities, cultures and social organizations of indigenous peoples.

• The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities approves (1994) the draft United Nations declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples, which, inter alia, emphasizes indigenous peoples’ right to determine their own development on their territories and the obligation of states to obtain prior informed and free consent to any project affecting them.

• The United Nations General Assembly proclaims the International Decade of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, 1994-2004 (following the international year dedicated to IPs). The aim of the decade is to strengthen international cooperation in areas such as human rights, environment, development, education, and health, in partnership with indigenous peoples.

• The United Nations Programme of Action from the 1992 Rio declaration, Agenda 21, recognizes indigenous peoples as a ‘major group’ and includes a chapter on their situation (Chapter 26) stating that efforts to implement sustainable development should recognize, accommodate, promote and strengthen the role of indigenous peoples and their communities.

• The Convention on Biological Diversity, in its article 8j, addresses the question of indigenous peoples and intellectual property rights. The Convention on Climate Change calls for sustainable management of forests as carbon sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases. Finally, articles 16g and 17c of the Convention on Desertification, which call for the protection of traditional technologies, practices and knowledge, are of special relevance to indigenous peoples.

• The Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, an advisory body of the Economic and Social Council, established in 2000 and inaugurated last May in New York, has a mandate to discuss indigenous issues relating to economic and social development, culture, the environment, education, health and human rights.

 

IFAD Activities in Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean

1/ In this paper the term indigenous peoples refers to groups that at national level are labelled as “tribes” (Bangladesh, Malaysia, Nepal and Pakistan), “ scheduled tribes” or “adivasi” (India), “nationalities” (China and Myanmar), and “isolated and alien peoples” (Indonesia).>

2/ Unless otherwise specified, in this paper the term 'indigenous peoples' includes groups referred to as ethnic minorities, minority communities, tribal and indigenous peoples.>

3/ A recent study (Zoninsen, 2000) indicated that ending the marginalization of indigenous peoples would potentially expand the national economies of Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala and Peru by at least 37%, 13%, 14% and 5%, respectively. Though this quantitative analysis refers to Latin America, other authors have advanced the same argument for other regions (Sen, 1999).>

4/ The annex provides a brief description of each of these milestones.>

5/ Agency is the capacity for autonomous action in the face of constricting social sanctions and structural inequalities.>

6/ Self-determination does not refer to secession, rather it refers to the autonomy and control of the groups' own destiny and development in their own ancestral territory.>

7/ This point emerged very forcefully in a recent consultation between the European Union and indigenous peoples' representatives (Brussels, June 2002).>

 

 

>