Recommendations The following recommendations are based on the main points outlined above. They are a general ‘shopping list’ of suggestions for directing IFAD projects concerned with women and livestock. Each recommendation is considered on a regional basis, and priorities are indicated accordingly. Encourage research into women livestock managers The lack of detailed understanding of women’s role in livestock production has been the common theme throughout this paper. Men often underrate women’s participation in livestock (and even agricultural) production, and interviews conducted with men alone may lead to erroneous results. There is a need for gender disaggregated data and gender analysis both in the research for and the design and implementation of IFAD’s projects and programmes. This problem is now being partially overcome in cases where diagnostic socio-economic studies are conducted as part of project formulation (IFAD 1991c), with a focus on division of labour, ownership of the means of production, household socio-economic viability and nutrition. However, these studies need to be complemented by more technical participatory analysis showing women’s ITK about and detailed technical role and workload in agricultural production, including their role in all aspects of livestock and smallstock production (e.g., portfolio of animals, access to feed resources, veterinary care, knowledge of technical improvements), in the formation and impact of women’s groups and leadership systems and in livestock marketing; and their access to education and training, and to agricultural inputs and information. IFAD is making a major contribution to the development of agricultural technology through grants awarded to research centres, such as the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), and the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). About half of these grants include at least one research parameter focusing on women’s role in farming systems (IFAD 1991c). However, greater emphasis should be placed on women’s technical role in livestock production. In addition, participatory research techniques should be encouraged, where women and local NGOs are involved in research activities, either in identifying the constraints and specific needs of women farmers, and or in carrying out research design and implementation. The potential in conducting specific technical research, such as epidemiological research on the use of anti-helminthics within the pastoral context, with the aid of local farmers as assistant researchers has been shown in many areas and could be used as a model for further technical research. The need for studies on the role of gender in technical fields is a priority in all three continents under review, but the dearth of information is particularly striking in China and the Central Asian Steppes of the Commonwealth of Independent States (Horowitz & Jowkar 1992. Enhance women’s participation in livestock projects IFAD’s strategy in recent years has been community based and participatory, recognizing the importance of flexible operational planning, follow-through and evaluation, and viewing project design as a process that should continue well into the implementation phase (IFAD 1991c). However, the need for gender focus has to be improved. It is not enough to select women as beneficiaries in a project; projects should have a gender focus from the beginning, one in which women are participants rather than indirect beneficiaries. Participatory techniques need to be extended to all phases of development work, including gender-sensitive supervision of project implementation. This presupposes that all those involved in the different stages of the project cycle from planning to implementation (e.g., project designers, extension agents and others) are trained in these techniques. IFAD has followed three approaches in directing its resources to women (IFAD 1991c):
The possibility of combining all three approaches in separate phases should not be ruled out. For example, it may be necessary to address women’s concerns separately and prior to their being mainstreamed in a later phase (IFAD 1991c). In most cases, rural women prefer to have women-only groups with funds directly earmarked to them because these groups are more cohesive, have lower attrition rates and allow women to play a more active role. This is particularly true of Africa and East Asia. In other cases, it would be a mistake to direct projects at women exclusively, since some women prefer to confer with their partners before taking any action, or prefer to work in cooperation with men. This may be the case in Latin America and the Middle East. In these cases, projects would be more acceptable locally if they were ‘family’ projects rather than ‘women’s’ projects (Oxby 1983). Wherever appropriate, women’s groups (as opposed to individuals) should be encouraged to take up activities related to livestock production. These groups should be targeted by development projects not in isolation but within the overall framework of the rural community. The process of development is very important since it defines the end result. The institutional structure used for development must be appropriate to the local situation. Where possible, preference should be given to establishing links with existing, often traditional, groups instead of setting up new ones. Where suitable group structures exist, such linkages may result in lower costs and ensure group cohesiveness. However, care must be taken not to perpetuate negative tendencies such as the development of class-based groups that shut out poor rural women. IFAD’s strategy in promoting groups should also include: (i) developing intercommunity or intergroup linkages for the purpose of exchanging information, practical cooperation and learning; and (ii) building or laying the foundation for a future development of hierarchical and/or formal group structures and institutions in the community, which could ensure the long-term viability of the programme (IFAD 1991c). Support indigenous technical knowledge systems Women’s indigenous technical knowledge should be used as a vehicle for promoting participatory development, and for enhancing communication between development workers and local people. In places where ITK is being eroded, efforts should be made to record, preserve and use it in development, especially as a basis for technical and managerial solutions. This recommendation should be a priority in all countries. As the case study in Appendix 3 attempts to illustrate, IFAD projects should adopt the approach of studying and evaluating local ITK, particularly of women, in all its projects. ITK can be understood through several elements: systems of nomenclature, descriptive systems and analytical systems (which include classification, relationships, interactions, correlations and causality). Understanding women’s ITK of livestock production should focus on: animal health and nutrition, animal husbandry, feed production and management, water management and animal reproduction. In addition, the dynamics of ITK should be scrutinized, including the process of acquisition of new ITK, experimentation with ITK by local people and changes in ITK caused by recent trends or interventions. As a follow-up to this paper, it is recommended that a review of women’s ITK in livestock production in the entire portfolio of IFAD projects and programmes be implemented. Appendix 5 provides typical terms of reference for a detailed ITK study on a project basis. All existing IFAD projects on livestock production should be required to conduct a study of women’s ITK, followed by periodic gender-techno evaluations. Emphasize research into appropriate technologies for women in livestock production Client-oriented research is needed in developing appropriate technologies for women in livestock production in order to increase production and incomes. Such research should take into account women’s roles and responsibilities, as well as their workload. In addition, complementary work needs to be carried out to reduce burdensome chores such as water and fuel wood collection and lessen women’s overall burden. Any time and energy-saving measures could lead to additional benefits, such as allowing women to take up income-generating activities in the livestock subsector. This is especially relevant where male migration causes labour shortages and increased workloads for women. Several issues should be considered in designing appropriate technologies for livestock production: (i) their implications for women’s labour requirements and workloads; (ii) their suitability in terms of consumption preferences; (iii) their implications in terms of women’s control over the means of production; (iv) their expansion and use of women’s indigenous knowledge; (v) the participation of women in their trials; and (vi) the importance of incorporating women’s physical, social and cultural assets when designing research activities. Technology is normally directed at tasks where there is the most profit, e.g., large and highly specialized animal production units. But in these enterprises, women are generally nothing more than underpaid labourers. Appropriate technologies must be made to help women increase their own productivity at the small and micro level. Particular attention should be paid to improving the production of goats, milk and minor livestock (rodents, rabbits, bees, etc.) and other lesser-known animals traditionally used in many parts of the world. Research needs to focus on how to raise these species in captivity. Appropriate technology should focus on individual and groups of women with a low dependence on external inputs. The most promising areas in promoting livestock production among women in Asia appear to be dairy cattle, swine production, microbreeds and poultry. In the Middle East, more work could be done on sheep-fattening, wool production and milk transformation. In Africa, the focus should be on goat production, sheep-fattening, milk production and meat transformation. In Latin America, efforts could concentrate on sheep and goat production, wool production and microbreeds. Change national policies to reverse the causes and adverse effects of local, national and regional constraints Land-grabbing and privatization and uncontrolled agricultural expansion are serious issues in Africa, where there are still extensive rangelands. These lead to land degradation and pastoral displacement, uncontrolled settlement and marginalization. They are also becoming serious issues in the range areas of Latin America and Asia. Land tenure laws need to be modified to protect the rights of communities. Policies should recognize the dependence of women and poor households on common land, and their hardships when land resources are degraded or scarce. (See Appendix 2). Women’s traditional land rights to both private and common land should be protected and, in the case of allocation of new lands, their equal accessibility to the land ensured. In most countries, women are denied access to land within the modern land tenure system, which seriously affects their ability to increase agricultural production and income. A good strategy is to allocate new land to a group of women, with internal mechanisms in place to ensure equal access to the land by all women in the group. Some requirements for enhancing women’s rights to land are: adequate data and understanding of local land tenure systems; participation of both men and women and community leaders in the process of land allocation and project planning and implementation; provision of supplementary assurances in the loan agreement with the Member Country to ensure borrowers’ commitment to support women’s land rights; and monitoring of the implementation process (IFAD 1991c). Although there are various cases where women have been able to benefit from commercialized livestock production, in most cases this is not so. Part of the blame is placed on the fact that the rights of women are not protected in the process. Projects and policies that promote commercialization should be sensitive to the impact on women and should devise rules and procedures for mitigating adverse results. Possible solutions are to work with women’s groups or to build in benefits for men in order to prevent them from taking over women’s activities. Government livestock development strategies should be modified to encourage and recognize women’s increasing roles in livestock production. Single-objective projects or programmes can never answer to local people’s needs. Multiple objectives that recognize women’s milk-based strategies, their concerns for household nutrition and income and their need for income-generating activities should become the norm in all livestock development projects in pastoral areas. Make locally managed credit facilities available to women for livestock production activities Credit needs to be provided directly to women, cutting through cultural barriers wherever they exist. This will require policy reform, training in literacy and business management for women and changes in credit procedures. Indigenous systems of credit can be utilized, making sure that women are allowed access to the system. Often credit is the major constraint for women, but not necessarily always. Sometimes it has to be accompanied or preceded by the development of technical and managerial skills, or entrepreneurial spirit, and the existence of ongoing entrepreneurial activities or supportive markets. Targeting credit to women requires a ‘client’ rather than an ‘institutional’ approach, i.e., women have to be contacted and encouraged individually. Instead of assuming that women will benefit through the same procedures as those used for men, project designers must introduce special procedures to target them. For example, smaller loans must be allowed, bureaucratic procedures must be simplified and made easy for the illiterate, the terms of repayment must be made more flexible to account for the slower rate of return on livestock, and adequate follow-up should be provided for investment control to ensure that the loan is being properly utilized. Other innovations that can be considered are mobile banking, convenient opening hours to accommodate women’s schedules, and appropriate and innovative savings schemes. In addition, mechanisms are needed to reduce risks associated with livestock production. Without such mechanisms, there is a danger of latent indebtedness, where women fail to repay their loans as a result , for example, of animal loss. Such risks can be reduced through flexible procedures, such as: repayment in kind and instalments, relevant grace periods and accompanying measures such as insurance, access to markets, adequate training, appropriate technologies in animal husbandry and feed resources and veterinary services. Where land for collateral is not available, women should be given access to credit using group collateral or alternative forms of collateral. IFAD’s experience has shown considerable success in breaking social barriers against credit for women. The group approach remains the most successful strategy in areas where there are major social and cultural constraints affecting women. The group approach also has the advantages of being less costly administratively (at least until such time as the group expands into an institution with fixed capital costs) and of increasing women’s confidence in undertaking income-generating activities. Two important aspects when providing credit are the financial viability or profitability of the enterprise being financed and the sustainability, at either the local or national level, of the financial services, which is related to costs and institutional arrangements. When assessing the viability of microenterprises presented for financing, IFAD looks for the following criteria: (i) that the enterprise makes efficient use of on-farm and locally available raw materials; (ii) that it requires only a modest financial investment; (iii) that it shows a low risk of failure; (iv) that it has a short gestation period between investment and generation of a regular income; and (v) that it is reasonably assured of demand for its product(s) in the local market. Improve market facilities and livestock prices to enhance women’s involvement In many rural areas, market facilities are inadequate, and women often have little access to the information, equipment, auctions, etc. of regional or even national markets (see Appendix 1). Market facilities that should be improved in most cases are roads, marketplaces, tools and equipment, information networks, trees or structures for shade, clean water, etc. Market equipment given through credit might be a useful way to enhance women’s access to markets. This equipment includes trays, scales, donkey carts, containers (e.g., for milk) and cool boxes to help preserve milk products. In addition, livestock and livestock produce prices are often low compared with those of other produce, which acts as a disincentive to improve marketing facilities. Direct training and extension services at women involved in livestock production More training and extension efforts need to be directed at women through training in literacy, business management and appropriate technologies for, in particular, small stock and minor animal production. IFAD has used four main strategies for communicating new skills and technology to women: (i) extension; (ii) basic education and literacy; (iii) community-based vocational training; and (iv)communication techniques for project-based activities. Basic education and literacy are useful, but the pay-off in terms of time and effort invested may only occur in the very long term. In addition, women often do not have a chance to use the information earned through literacy training or basic education on a day-to-day basis. Success is greater if education focuses on functional literacy and managerial and/or numeracy skills directly related to agricultural production (including accounting and bookkeeping), and serves both immediate and long-term purposes. Enhancing communication techniques for project activities is another useful approach, which needs to be accompanied by extension and vocational training. Pastoral women should be trained in their villages or transhumant camps, since they are often too busy, or not allowed, to leave their homesteads. Mobile extension and training services have had exemplary success in Asia and Africa and could be extended elsewhere. In the long run, there should be more training of women extension agents. However, in the short run, existing agents (both men and women) should be trained in gender analysis and gender-techno issues. Professional women need to be encouraged to join fields related to livestock production, especially by providing more employment opportunities for women in those fields. Ensure that gender issues are reflected in all aspects of IFAD’s lending operations Special Programming Missions and country strategy formulation should be sensitive to gender issues, as was the approach used in several SPMs in Brazil, Indonesia, the Sudan and Yemen, among others. Gender issues should also be reflected in project design, formulation and appraisal, project implementation and supervision, and project monitoring and evaluation. In certain cases, it may be necessary to engage female consultants familiar with both social and technical fields. Baseline data should disaggregate data by gender. Formulation and appraisal reports may need to define expected adoption rates for each activity by gender. Farm models should be used to predict changes in a family, especially women’s labour requirements, and similar models should be used for microenterprises. Building flexibility into the project formulation and appraisal process will help to ensure participation by both men and women in project activities. Flexibility must be retained even as far as cancelling commitments if the need arises. Projects should consider low-cost efforts to orient and build institutional capacity to respond to gender issues. IFAD’s project controllers should also systematically review gender issues in the supervision missions’ terms of reference. When the question is of particular importance, a women in development expert should also be included in the mission. Project monitoring and evaluation should include a number of easily measurable gender-sensitive indicators, with data collected at regular intervals. |
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