Jump to... Executive summary Introduction Similarities and difference Conclusions Appendix 1 Appendix 2

A number of lessons can be learned from the study, and from the extensive research and project experience in similar environments. These lessons have implications in terms of development perspectives in general and project design in particular. It is not the purpose of this paper to enter into the specifics of IFAD project design in Morocco; the focus is of a broader nature. Possible project options are mentioned to encourage reflection on the implications and on the factors that need to be taken into account in these and other similar socio-economic and natural environments.

Understanding and addressing diversity

The risk of generalizations

When development initiatives are planned on a regional or area basis, generalizations are made about what is needed and feasible. Consequently, the differences between one community and another, which may well have a relevant impact on the development activities, can easily be obscured.

In the carrying out of social and production surveys during the design stage, villages with differing characteristics should be chosen as samples. The factors listed in Box 4 could be used as indicators for the selection of sample villages and the establishment of village profiles.

The feasibility of development options, which can be identified on the basis of an assessment of the main production issues and the natural resource base of a given area, must be verified according to the situation in the sample villages chosen to represent different needs and characteristics. Box 6 indicates the possible implications of pasture-rehabilitation measures.

The differences in the use of inputs in Elhouafi and Taghilast show how agricultural practices, too, may vary considerably even in similar ecological contexts (Box 3)

 

 

Multiple options must be offered

In the case of externally induced development efforts, a number of low-risk options need to be offered to resource-poor communities and households, taking into account the fact that:

Respecting cultural norms and values

The case studies point to the need to understand and respect existing cultural norms and the gender roles accepted by men and women. These cultural values change more because of overall socio-economic shifts than because of awareness efforts that might be undertaken from the outside. For example, in the poorer villages, women’s mobility has progressed beyond the norms traditionally accepted in the area not because of initiatives from the outside, but because of economic need.

Understanding the processes of change

The case studies highlight the importance of taking into account the processes of change under way within the various communities. The studies indicate that the changes that planners may identify as important (for example, range management, crop diversification, improved livestock breeding, the promotion of women’s income-generating activities) may not be in line with the constraints, potential and, in particular, immediate aspirations (and understanding) of the communities or segments of a community or with what the communities themselves perceive as their priorities.

The trend towards urbanization (especially among the younger generation) and the adoption of urban cultural values often seems to have a stronger influence on a community than do externally promoted rural development efforts.

The shift from a traditional economy to a modern one is a complex process. It does not involve simply a shift in economic behaviour, but implies changes in the relationship between the individual and the community and, in the context of the household, between genders and generations (note the changing importance of the older generation). These changes take time. Development programmes and projects must recognize that each community needs to set its own pace. They must not press for quick results that may be possible only among the richer and more well informed. Furthermore, changes induced from the outside may not be positive for all concerned.

Looking at the effects of change on women

With increased access to a monetized economy (such as the introduction of irrigated agriculture and more intensive livestock production, of which Oulad Lfqir provides a clear example), women may lose their central role in the production and maintenance of HFS. The differences between the women and men in their autonomy and in their decision-making powers may become greater, despite the fact that women’s material condition may have improved.

i. Addressing women’s actual roles in production and decision-making

. Projects must address women’s actual roles in production and decision-making, and these vary according to the community involved. The case studies show that, in order to identify women’s contribution to production, it is often necessary to ‘look behind the walls’ and closely observe what happens within the precincts of the home. This is especially important in societies where there is a considerable separation between women and men and where the role of women in production is less visible.

It is important to avoid simplistic distinctions between women’s ‘productive’ and ‘reproductive’ activities, as such denominations can obscure the crucial contribution of women to the household economy. The care of livestock, for example, should not be placed under the umbrella of reproductive tasks, such as looking after children.

Decision-making is a process in which all the members of the family interact. It is not enough simply to ask, "Who makes the decisions?". The answer will tend to refer only to the final action required to put that decision into practice, the formal decision. Instead, it is important to look at how the decision is made, at the kind of knowledge upon which the decision is based and at who provides this knowledge, in order to learn a great deal more about who contributes to reaching the decision.

Generalizations with regard to decision-making must be avoided, since each community is different. Decision-making must be analysed in relation to specific project options.

Ensuring that women are not marginalized

Women’s access to knowledge (through both formal and informal channels) is restricted by their limitations in mobility. The example of the pill (see Taghilast and Elhouafi, Appendix I, paragraph 45) is a clear demonstration of how information can become lost or distorted when it is not directly transmitted to those who are most concerned. Information and extension services should always be directed towards those who are directly involved, so that they can make the appropriate decisions. A special effort needs to be made to ensure that information reaches women directly. Activities must be proposed that can be carried out within the existing ‘boundaries’ that apply to them. Apart from extension services, both radio and television are effective means of supplying women with information. All development efforts should have a communications component.

It is fairly easy for women (who are less mobile than men) to become marginalized in the context of externally induced development activities, especially in societies of the type examined through this research initiative. Changes in the material and social conditions of women and in their status and decision-making power in the context of development efforts and projects need to be carefully monitored.

Youth

Offering viable alternatives to the young

Development projects and programmes need to identify activities for specific groups within the community, particularly young men and unmarried women. Rural development projects and programmes need to offer young people viable alternatives that will encourage them not to migrate and that will also be financially rewarding in the long term. If the young are to be involved in rural-based activities, they must receive an income that enables them to assume an independent role within the household and the community. The activities in question should have a ‘modern’ technical content.

Easing the burdens on children

Planners generally ignore the contribution of children to productive and reproductive tasks. It often happens that the increased involvement of parents in externally promoted productive activities actually increases the workload of children in terms of domestic chores, thereby making it difficult for them to pursue their education. The burdens on children need to be eased in line with the reduction in the burdens on women.

Organization and participation

Participation in the identification of the causes and solutions in environmental degradation

People must be involved in the analysis of environmental degradation, its manifestations and its causes. If only outsiders conduct the analysis, people will not be adequately motivated to adopt the kinds of behaviour necessary to protect the environment. Moreover, it is not only the ‘specialists’ who have the knowledge.

The knowledge possessed by the people who live in a particular environment must be tapped, and participatory learning exercises must be conducted to establish the cause-and-effect relationship in observed phenomena. The people concerned are generally able to analyse the signs of environmental degradation and the changes in these indicators in greater detail than can outsiders. What they may need to acquire is ability in establishing appropriate linkages among the indicators.

Appropriate organizational development

Impositions by outside organizations can cause conflict and increase already existing differences in social status and power. Moreover, these organizations may simply be ineffective because people do not have a sense of belonging to them and do not have the capacity to control the organizations that have been set up. Organizational development should be based on an assessment of people’s traditions and experience with organizations (both traditional and modern). (Range users associations, for example, should be based on village organizations.) People need to be able to choose their own form of organization. A project should not impose organizational blueprints, and care should be taken not to impose organizational structures from the outside.

In relation to credit, it is necessary to ascertain people’s attitudes towards formal credit and their experience with it. It is also important to assess whether alternatives such as savings clubs would be viable given existing forms of social organization.

Promoting participation

Due to the type of state interventions they have already encountered in the past, some communities may be more dependent on outside assistance and less prepared to mobilize. This issue needs to be assessed during the planning of community-organized activities. Such an assessment would involve making a distinction between state-initiated groups and those created as a result of sociocultural and economic needs.

Even from the viewpoint of sustainability, development projects and programmes should reduce dependency on the state through the promotion of independent socio-organizational capacities and the provision of information upon which people can act.

For instance, in Taghilast and Elhouafi there is more cooperation among women than among men with regard to social activities. In a project context, this could form the basis for group activities centred on economic initiatives.

Focused and participatory research for project design

Targeting and monitoring social change

Participatory wealth-ranking as employed in the case studies has proved to be a useful exercise that can assist in targeting. Targeting can be disruptive and unpopular, and if it is required, the communities must be involved in the selection of the criteria upon which it is based. It is important to look not only at the stratification of a community according to social position and wealth, but also to examine the changes that have taken place or could be brought about as a result of specific development efforts. For example, the introduction of irrigation generally increases social and wealth stratification (as evident in Oulad Lfqir). The differences between those people who obtain access to irrigated land and those who do not or among people according to the quality of the land to which they have access can become very great. In irrigated agriculture and intensive cultivation, even slight variations in the size of plots can have a significant difference in terms of yield.

Learning more about the household economy

It is essential to understand how the household economy works and to understand intrahousehold economic linkages (sharecropping, ‘sharebreeding’, gift exchange, wealth redistribution mechanisms, etc). The Morocco team did not attempt to obtain data on income and expenditure because people are not inclined to state what they earn and frequently say they do not know.

Through the use of participatory methodologies and an understanding of the socio-economic context, one can at least identify patterns of income and expenditure and the major sources of income. This is generally a useful exercise for beneficiaries, since it helps them to build a capacity for planning over longer periods and not merely on the basis of daily needs.

Participatory research

Undoubtedly, the study yielded much useful information. Nevertheless, it was not sufficient as a basis for project design (which was not, of course, the purpose of this particular study). Once the context has been described in general (as has been done very effectively in this study), focused research should be carried out to cast light on possible project options and on what it may be possible to accomplish in the particular context.

Inputs are needed from people with special technical knowledge so that the research can achieve a greater understanding about issues such as cropping and livestock breeding practices, who does what and, above all, who has which type of knowledge. If only sociologists or anthropologists –who have little knowledge of agriculture, livestock and environmental resource management – carry out the interviews, the data acquired may be too generic.

Of course, the opposite is also true. The research team should not be composed of technical people alone, but should include – and possibly be led by – an anthropologist or a sociologist. The surveys must be conducted by multidisciplinary teams.

Participatory research methodologies such as participatory rural appraisals (PRAs) can be useful, provided that: