| Source of technology and funding | IFAD-supported research carried out by the International Livestock Research Institute |
| Expected Benefit: | Higher adoption of technology, greater sustainability, improved productivity of livestock, enhanced impact of the technology |
| Crops and enterprise: | Livestock-keeping |
| Agro-ecological zones: | All |
| Target region and countries: | East, Central and Southern Africa |
| Keywords: | Impact assessment, East Coast fever infection and treatment, Africa, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus |
The infection and treatment method (ITM) of immunization against East Coast fever is currently the only effective means available to immunize cattle against the disease. Though the method was developed more than 20 years ago, it has not been widely adopted by livestock keepers. The various East African countries have adopted different approaches in their formulation and delivery of ITM, and there is much to be gained from comparing their different experiences. A regional workshop proposed a common protocol for impact assessment that allows country-level studies that are comparable and, at the same time, could contribute to a region-wide evaluation.
The objective of the studies is to evaluate the factors that have favoured or constrained the adoption of ITM in each country and assess the potential for further adoption and the development of a commercially viable delivery system. The specific objectives include:
- to characterize the existing delivery system for ITM, including its structure, its effectiveness and beneficiaries, the policy environment, and technical and economic constraints;
- to evaluate the factors that determine farmer willingness to use or not use ITM;
- to assess the epidemiological and economic impact of ITM on-farm.
The process is carried out in four stages, namely:
- country-level consultations among stakeholders;
- a rapid appraisal of current ITM delivery systems, policies, and issues;
- a cross-sectional survey of livestock keepers, of adopters and non-adopters
of ITM in key production systems to evaluate the socio-economic and epidemiological
impact of ITM;
- a longitudinal study of the epidemiological impacts of ITM.
The purpose of the country-level consultations is to build consensus
on the need for impact assessment studies among the various stakeholders
and to agree on institutional responsibilities. This approach also allows
ownership of the final product. The consultations would therefore need
to involve as many stakeholders as possible so that the process is as
inclusive as possible. Policy-makers, researchers, service providers and
users of ITM are some of the key stakeholders.
A rapid appraisal survey of current ITM delivery systems, policies and
issues
The survey involves the compilation of already available, relevant secondary data and interviews with key informants in the sector. It also involves a description (‘characterization’) of the main cattle and dairy production systems.
Information to be collected in the rapid appraisal:
1. a history of the introduction of ITM in the country;
2. the structure of current ITM delivery:
- source of vaccine, antibiotics and other supplies;
- actors involved, their function and relationships;
- clients (main production systems targeted, geographical distribution and estimated numbers of cattle);
- technical characteristics of ITM, packaging, constraints;
3. context of current delivery of ITM:
- relevant regulations and policies;
- licensing, registration procedures;
- quality control and liability;
- policy environment;
- problems encountered;
4. performance of current delivery system:
- cost structure and margins;
- service volumes;
- coverage and adoption by targeted clients;
- anticipated future ITM delivery system;
- structure;
- adopters and non-adopters in the same region and immunized and non-immunized cattle on the same farms are compared.
Cross-sectional survey of livestock keepers of adopters and non-adopters of ITM
The cross-sectional survey has two objectives:
1. to evaluate factors that determine adoption of the technology and the socio-economic impacts of ITM on-farm;
2. to determine the epidemiological impact of ITM.
The cross-sectional survey is designed to select a representative sample of livestock keepers from each major production system in which ITM has been introduced. A stratified sampling strategy is adopted. Stratification is based on the farming system and agro-ecological zone arising from the characterization study. The sample size should be a minimum of 300 livestock keepers per production system, half having used ITM, and half never having used ITM.
The information to be collected in the socio-economic survey:
1. farmer and farm household characteristics:
- farm assets: physical and human capital, land;
2. farm activities:
- crop and livestock production, off-farm work;
3. livestock production:
- herd structure;
- management practices;
- production levels;
4. animal health management practices:
- perceptions of animal disease (vectors, morbidity, mortality);
- recent herd health history;
- access to service providers and information;
5. experience with ITM:
- perceptions of ITM;
- use of ITM;
- perceived impact of ITM;
- changes in tick control practices;
- types of acaricides used;
- frequency of treatments;
- other types of control practices;
- productivity, herd size.
The survey on epidemiological impacts would use the same sample or a
sub-sample as in the socio-economic survey and would preferably be carried
out at the same time. Survey instruments include a semi-structured questionnaire
and a collection of samples to reinforce farmer recall information.
The information to be collected through the epidemiological impacts, socio-economic
survey:
1. changes in the epidemiological state of tick-borne diseases:
- age-specific morbidity;
- age-specific mortality, causes;
2. vector assessment:
- visual assessment of the number of infested herds/animals, level of infestation, species.
Longitudinal study of the epidemiological impacts of ITM
The longitudinal study on epidemiological impacts is meant to validate the findings of the cross sectional survey and to collect additional information that cannot be collected through a cross-sectional study. However, this component can be left out if time and costs are serious constraints. The study would use a sub-sample of the households in the cross-sectional survey.
Farms are monitored continuously for one year. The following information is be collected:
1. changes in the epidemiological state of tick-borne diseases:
- age-specific morbidity;
- age-specific mortality and causes;
- tick counts on a representative number of cattle;
- theileria infections in ticks;
- serology to assess antibodies against theileriosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis and heartwater;
2. changes in tick control practices:
- types of acaricides used;
- frequency of treatments;
- other health management practices;
3. changes in parasite populations:
- parasite characterization in tick and blood collections;
- vaccine markers;
- breakthrough.
Rapid appraisal:
- design and initial contacts for secondary data collection: ½ month;
- key informant interviews and primary data collection: ½ month;
- follow-up on secondary data collection: 1½ months;
- synthesis and write-up: ½ month.
Cross-sectional survey of socio-economic impacts
- design and logistical preparations: ½ month;
- field work: 2 months;
- data entry: 1 month;
- data analysis and report writing: 2 months.
Cross-sectional survey of epidemiological impacts
- design and logistical preparations: ½ month;
- field work: 2 months;
- data entry: 1 month;
- data analysis and report writing: 2 months.
Longitudinal study of epidemiological impacts
- design and logistical preparations: 1 month;
- field work: 12 months;
- data entry: 1 month;
- data analysis and report writing: 2 months.
The study will generate essential information needed by the primary beneficiaries – policy-makers and planners in national animal health services – to formulate appropriate policies to ensure the sustainable delivery of ITM to the final beneficiaries, the livestock keepers. The timely completion of the study would also provide the basis for the development of regional efforts to harmonize national policies and capitalize on regional economies of scale to reduce the cost of ITM and of ITM delivery.
