Livestock play an important role in most small-scale farming systems throughout the world. They provide traction to cultivate fields, manure to maintain crop productivity, and nutritious food products for human consumption and income-generation. Despite the importance of livestock, inadequate livestock nutrition is a common problem in the developing world, and a major factor affecting the development of viable livestock industries in poor countries.
IFAD recognizes both the significant role that improved animal feed and feeding practices can play in the long-term alleviation of rural poverty and their specific benefits to the rural poor such as increased livestock productivity, household food security and income.
Because of the growing demand for animal feed, new technologies and techniques need to be continuously developed and transferred in order to avoid environmental deterioration or increases in the prices of food products. Research and technology generation seeking ways to overcome food insecurity and poverty are therefore essential for agricultural and rural development.
In the development of research strategies and innovations for animal feed improvement and technology transfer methodologies, the following considerations should be made:
- Appropriate technology should be developed to fit the livestock production needs of the rural poor. Accordingly, high priority should be placed on the direct involvement of research beneficiaries, individually and collectively, in the selection of research priorities, the conduct and ongoing evaluation of research programmes and the validation of research results.
-
Feed
research in developing countries should be based on the specific conditions
of each agro-ecological zone. Different ecological zones (such as arid,
semi-arid and sub-humid, highlands and humid zones) will require different
research-based approaches. In the Smallholder
Cattle Development Project, Indonesia, failure to conduct studies
on the agro-ecological conditions of the project site was cited as a
reason for the ineffective implementation of the forage improvement
programme. - On the other hand, selecting hardware and technology merely because positive results were obtained under similar ecological conditions is not a guarantee to success, as was seen in the Chuquisaca North Agricultural Development Project, Bolivia. Other factors play a pivotal role in the adoption of new technology, including socio-economic factors (e.g. land ownership, labour requirements and lack of knowledge), cultural factors (e.g. traditional practices and indigenous knowledge), appropriate training support and availability of inputs and technical follow-up.
Appropriate
research strategies should therefore seek to identify the inputs, outputs,
potentials and constraints of the research component; develop interventions
to resolve constraints and exploit potentials; design alternative systems;
evaluate interventions and alternative systems; and elaborate alternatives
that have proven to be socially and culturally acceptable, technically
practical and economically feasible.
IFAD’s experience has shown that support to research and transfer of technology is critical to the development and sustainability of smallholder livestock production. The Fund has also learned that the development of improved feeding systems is constrained by inadequate technical, economical and institutional capacity in the field of research. Therefore, IFAD’s support has generally been geared to strengthening research institutions and establishing demonstration and experimental farms where improved feed and feeding systems can be developed, tested and transferred to/ adopted by smallholders. In the Cuchumatanes Highlands Rural Development Project, Guatemala, IFAD’s support of training and demonstration activities aimed at improving animal nutrition resulted in the adoption and use of the new improved varieties of forage.
The improvement of national research institutions is essential to the development of sustainable livestock production. Institutional capacity-building is usually achieved through partnerships with local organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), private firms and other entities involved in the technology development and implementation process. The aim is to increase the productivity and effectiveness of the resources devoted to agricultural research. For example, an effective partnership with local organizations was constructed in the Support Project for Small Producers in the Semi-Arid Zones of Falcon and Lara States (PROSALAFA), Venezuela.
IFAD has also provided support to research facilities in the development of traditional and non-traditional feed resources on demonstration farms and the transfer of new technologies to farmers. Livestock feed research carried out in the Punjab Smallholder Dairy Development Project, Pakistan, resulted in improvements in cropping patterns, hybrid seeds, grass varieties and fodder practices. The Western Savannah Project – Phase II, Sudan, was able to identify through research not only several potential forage production strategies such as community-managed enclosures, fallow improvement and fodder banks, but also suitable fodder and forage species for different ecological zones.
One of IFAD’s policies is to encourage rural farmers to focus on cultivating their own animal feed while reducing the competition for land between human food and animal feed. Building on the complementary relationship between livestock and crops, the Fund has shown, particularly through the introduction of mixed farming systems, that smallholder agricultural systems can be improved in a sustainable way. Integrated crop-livestock farming systems not only play an important role in the provision of by-products that serve as inputs (such as crop residues and manure), but they also reduce soil degradation and are therefore environmentally beneficial. An integrated approach results in increased production, greater income opportunities, and improved diets through the addition of protein, thereby contributing to the sustainability of smallholder livestock production. In the Cuchumatanes project, Guatemala, a farm model was developed based on the integration of sheep with crop production. The new model made it possible to integrate productive and environmental aspects such as the recovery of natural pasture and increased availability of forage and organic fertilizer.
In areas where climatic conditions are extreme (e.g. harsh winters or recurrent drought), poor households are often exposed to feeding problems. In the Western Savannah Development Project – Phase II, Sudan, drought-tolerant species of browse shrubs, trees and grasses were established. Because of communal ownership of grazing lands and complex grazing rights in areas with extreme climatic conditions, herders have no incentive to invest in the land. IFAD has therefore adopted a community-based approach, focused on the promotion of improved communal grazing systems, natural resource management and the establishment of grazing reserves with improved pastures.
IFAD’s experience has shown that the transfer of research results is equally as important as their development. An essential element for the successful transfer of technology is the existence of an effective extension system to provide technical assistance. The extension services available to IFAD’s target group, the rural poor, are often limited because of the lack of sufficient and qualified personnel, and inadequate knowledge of livestock nutrition, fodder production, use of by-products and potential feed additives. The effective delivery and subsequent uptake of research results, therefore, should be based on a clear extension policy, adequate extension infrastructure and relevant extension messages.
IFAD’s policy has been to strengthen extension services by:
- facilitating changes in extension methodology; and
- providing support facilities, infrastructure (e.g. transport and housing), training and operational funds.
In PROSALAFA, Venezuela, in addition to the provision of training and support facilities to the extension personnel in animal nutrition, the project also provided support for research related to the influence of different feeding diets on goat weight and for extension validation of the technology through field-testing and demonstrations. The Family Sector Livestock Development Programme, Mozambique, has funded training and awareness-raising workshops for extension services, during which demonstrations have been carried out of locally produced mineral blocks and fodder bank preparation.
Numerous IFAD livestock projects have identified the poor quality and insufficient quantity of pastures, forages and crop residues as major constraints to increasing productivity. A significant number have also reported the inadequate use of sown forages and forage legumes, due to lack of farmer awareness and the low availability of forage seed.
Feeding systems practised by the rural poor are mainly based on the use of natural pastures during the rainy season and agricultural by-products and low-cost feed during the dry season. Agricultural by-products such as crop residues, although widely used as sources of feed by smallholders, do not provide the nutrients needed to ensure productive gains. Prior to the Cuchumatanes Highlands Rural Development Project, Guatemala, the only feed supplement received by sheep was salt, distributed every 10-15 days. Natural pastures, in addition to having a low carrying capacity, are often inappropriately used and overgrazed. The mismanagement of natural pastures has resulted in soil degradation, an acceleration of erosion and desertification processes, and hence low livestock production and income insecurity.
In most small-scale farming systems, livestock mainly graze on native pastures and cultivated forages, including cereal and legume residues and, increasingly, fodder trees and shrubs. However, the nutritive value of forages varies seasonally, with significant qualitative and quantitative decreases during the dry season. Smallholders therefore need to grow their own fodder in order to increase animal productivity and reduce the incidence of nutritional deficiencies.
Many IFAD projects have promoted the establishment of forages, with varying results. For example, in the Qinghai/Hainan Prefecture Agricultural Development Project, China, production of oat hay was discontinued in high-altitude locations because of poor harvests. In some townships, instead of oats, Elymus Sibericus (wild rye), a perennial grass requiring limited fertilizers, has been planted. Reported advantages include reduced erosion, lower risk of harvest failure and no need for annual cultivation. Less positive results were obtained in the Chuquisaca North Agricultural Development Project, Bolivia. Although the use of oat and Vicia forage effectively improved sheep nutrition in other Bolivian regions with similar ecological conditions, their use in the project had insignificant results.
A more practical approach to the problem of feed scarcity is for farmers to establish fodder banks. Fodder banks are plantings of high-quality fodder species. They can be used all year, but are designed to bridge forage scarcity in dry seasons. Fodder banks do not meet all feed needs, but supplement available dry-season forage. Forage/protein banks of Leucaena were successfully established in the Generation and Transfer of Agricultural Technology and Seed Production Project, Guatemala, and in the Support Project for Small Producers in the Semi-Arid Zones of Falcon and Lara States (PROSALAFA), Venezuela.
The integration of livestock within cropping systems is becoming increasingly widespread, especially in densely populated areas where land is scarce. This has given rise to integrated cropping systems combining food crop, cash crop and fodder crop production aimed at meeting both livestock and human needs. Such systems have proved to be an effective way to encourage rural farmers to grow animal feed. They are especially popular because of their added benefits, such as manure, animal feed, food and income security, and environmental and soil conservation. In the Smallholder Cattle Development Project, Indonesia, mixed farming systems were designed and implemented with a view to improving the sustainability of the dominant cropping component while securing forage for livestock.
IFAD’s experience in fodder planting has not always been successful, a fact generally not given due consideration. In the Indonesia project, failure to assess the agro-ecological conditions negatively affected the implementation of the forage improvement programme. In the Northern Pasture and Livestock Development Project, China, the increased availability of fodder resulted in an unexpectedly high increase in livestock numbers. This led to the degradation of existing pastures thus threatening the sustainability of pasture carrying capacity.
Credit in combination with other inputs plays a significant role in poverty alleviation. Access to credit is considered a vital tool for increasing agricultural productivity and reducing poverty.
The poor generally do not have access to credit services, mainly because they lack the required collateral, which makes them very poor credit risks. Other factors that hinder smallholders’ access to credit include high interest rates and the lengthy and cumbersome formalities required to access credit.
IFAD’s experience has shown that:
- credit strategies aimed at enhancing livestock productivity should be based on flexible terms and conditions and designed to suit the local prevailing conditions and the needs of the intended beneficiaries;
- the credit system adopted should be determined with the active participation of the beneficiaries. This would permit farmers to choose the credit strategy most appropriate and suited to their needs; and
- credit programmes without complicated collateral systems are better suited to the needs of poor farmers.
Access to credit plays a crucial role in the development and adoption of new technologies and improved feed resources especially in low-income households. To encourage poor livestock owners to cultivate improved varieties of feed, IFAD has used credit as an incentive, providing both credit in kind (e.g. improved seed varieties, grasses, seedlings, fertilizers, and land for the setup of demonstration plots) and in cash (e.g. loans). In the Smallholder Cattle Development Project, Indonesia, thanks to the provision of credit, a mixed farming system was developed, which made the dominant cropping component more sustainable while securing forage for livestock. In collaboration with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other local organizations, IFAD has supported feed production, but with varying results. For example, in the Smallholder Livestock Development Project, Bangladesh, in partnership with local NGOs, IFAD trained ‘feed mixers’ whose role is to prepare feed from locally available feed resources supplemented by purchased nutrients. This not only guaranteed the supply of improved feed but also created a new income-generating activity for the rural poor. To increase the fodder supply, the Qinghai/Hainan Prefecture Agricultural Development Project, China, provided credit packages to 6 000 herders so that they could plant oat hay.
In countries where animal feed resources are scarce, IFAD’s policy has been to provide loans/foreign exchange for the purchase of feed from external sources. In the Crop and Livestock Rehabilitation Project, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, funds were provided for the procurement of raw feed material from China, for on-lending to feed mills. Despite efforts to ensure feed supply, shortages of high-quality feed and feed additives were still a constraint to feed production. IFAD’s experience has shown that reliance on imported feed is not the best solution to problems of feed scarcity in developing countries for a number of reasons:
- Feed importation places more strain on the already limited budgets of developing countries and their foreign exchange reserves and is therefore unlikely to be sustainable. In the Livestock Development Project, Samoa, livestock components failed because increases in the price of imported feed made it difficult to maintain feed supply and quality.
- Importation of animal feed or raw feed materials discourages efforts to increase local feed production and develop alternative feeds, thus thwarting the development of internal feed resources.
Provision of credit per se (whether for feed production or purchase) does not necessarily guarantee the sustainability of smallholder fodder production. Other aspects need to be taken into account when providing credit, such as:
- access to markets for livestock products such as milk or access to livestock production areas where fodder can be marketed. Poor farmers will produce fodder if there are other benefits deriving from the activity. In the Smallholder Cattle Development Project, Indonesia, credit was provided for forage seed production, but reduced market demand for forage legume seeds made this activity unprofitable;
- availability of land. Where land is scarce, land for fodder production is limited because it must be taken away from land for food and cash crop production; and
- beneficiary willingness to plant fodder. In the Sidi Bouzid Rainfed Agriculture Development Project, Tunisia, the project had provisions for granting agricultural credit to farmers who agreed to increase forage production by planting Acacia. No credit was disbursed, however, as farmers were reluctant to plant these trees.
The growing human population and livestock numbers, decreasing pasture availability and the increasing use of grazing land for crop production have made the use of improved feed in animal production systems all the more urgent. Adequate quantities of high-quality feed are necessary for profitable livestock production. Feeding systems based on improved feeding practices will help maintain the body conditions of animals, increase their resistance to disease and nutrition-related problems, and hence increase animal productivity and rural income opportunities.
The use of improved animal feed is becoming more prevalent, with feeding systems based on improved crop residues and agro-industrial by-products such as molasses, processed cassava and potatoes, oil cakes and milling by-products.
Because of feed insufficiencies, animals reared by smallholders often exhibit high mortality, high susceptibility to diseases, low calving periods, late maturity, infertility and reduced reproductive parameters – all of which have obvious negative impacts on household food security and income. Poor feeding practices are the primary reasons for low animal production in developing countries.
The factors that hinder smallholder access to improved feed and the effective use of the vast unexplored feed resources include:
- lack of sufficient land; and where it does exist, it is often unproductive and of low quality;
- limited capital resources, forcing smallholders to seek less costly alternatives that are low in nutritional content; and
- insufficient knowledge of available feed resources, potential feed and its use.
The combined effects of drought and increasing pressure on land have led to major changes in traditional livestock feeding systems. Consequently, feed improvement and use in developing countries has been emphasized in recent years for the following reasons:
- As the human population grows, the demand for animal products increases, thus requiring better animal nutrition based on improved feeding systems. Increases in livestock numbers have boosted the demand for animal feed.
- To feed the increasing human population, more land will need to be devoted to crops, thereby reducing the land available for pasture and fodder. The limited land available for feed and fodder production and the decreasing quality of available pasture have given rise to the use of improved crop residues and by-products as animal feed.
- Increasing human demand for food makes feed improvement essential in order to avoid competition between animal feed and human feed requirements.
In areas of land scarcity, smallholder and landless farmers are faced with the dilemma of choosing between the production of feed for animals and the cultivation of food and cash crops for household consumption and income-generation. The appraisal of the Smallholder Cattle Development Project, Indonesia, established that due to limited land, smallholders rarely planted forage crops and relied on crop residues and grass collected from roadsides to feed their cattle. The increase in population and demand for food has resulted in the conversion of grazing land into cultivated fields and its use for other economic activities. Insecure grazing and user rights and uncertain land ownership further aggravate the problem of insufficient land and give smallholders little incentive to invest in feed cultivation.
Government livestock development programmes in developing countries often give low priority to the improvement of feed mainly due to budgetary constraints. Furthermore, most smallholders lack access to improved feed such as concentrates and supplemental feed because of their high costs.
Feed improvement and use in developing countries should therefore be based on:
- farmer practices, production systems and participation;
- on-farm trials;
- locally available and potential feed resources and livestock production systems;
- improved techniques appropriate to the farming system in use and economically and socially acceptable.
IFAD has supported feed improvement and use in numerous ways, obtaining diverse results. Given the limited land available for feed production, it has promoted the efficient use of agricultural crop residues by farmers. Food crop residues such as straw, stalks and leaves can be used for animal feeding. However, these by themselves do not provide sufficient nutrients to increase animal productivity. In response to this, IFAD has sought to improve the nutritional value of crop residues. In the Punjab Smallholder Dairy Development Project, Pakistan, for instance, demonstrations and trials were carried out on rice straw and wheat straw using urea treatment, molasses blocks and mineral supplements. This was effective in improving animal nutrition systems based on low-quality fodder.
Livestock feed research carried out under various IFAD projects has also resulted in improvements in feeding systems. The Generation and Transfer of Agricultural Technology and Seed Production Project, Guatemala, demonstrates the merits of improved feeding regimes based on the use of improved crop residues, hybrid grass varieties and feed supplements (vitamins and mineral salts). The Punjab project, Pakistan, promoted the development of improved varieties of hybrid forage and fodder, together with the development of non-traditional feed resources and their subsequent adoption in target villages.
To encourage rural farmers to use improved feeding systems and increase their use of improved feed, IFAD has also provided direct feed inputs to project beneficiaries such as improved varieties of forage.
One lesson learned from IFAD’s experience in feed improvements – for example, in the Livestock Development Project Samoa, and the Crop and Livestock Rehabilitation Project, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea – is the need to avoid the importation of raw feed materials for the manufacture of improved feed. The provision of loans or foreign exchange discourages developing countries from exploiting their own feed resources and has often proved unsustainable. Thus, developing countries should make maximum use of their available resources and develop alternative and sustainable feeding systems.
IFAD has approached feed improvement at community level by focusing on the improvement of communal pastures. It has applied this approach mainly in arid and semi-arid areas where grazing-land management is based on social and communal organizations. In the Western Savannah Project – Phase II, Sudan, the range and pasture improvement programme increased local capacity for improved forage seed production and identified a number of potential forage strategies, including community-managed enclosures, fodder banks and the introduction of improved grasses and legumes into crop rotational practices.
A more thorough approach to the problem of feed inadequacy
and scarcity has been to provide beneficiaries with training in simple/basic
feed improvement techniques based on locally available inputs and traditional
feeding practices. In the Punjab
project, Pakistan, smallholder farmers have benefited from training
in fodder production, feed formulation, hay and silage making, and animal
nutrition. The Family Sector Livestock
Development Programme, Mozambique, funded training and awareness-raising
workshops for staff of extension services, during which demonstrations
of fodder bank preparation and locally produced mineral blocks were carried
out. The Cuchumatanes Highlands Rural
Development Project, Guatemala, successfully developed a sheep production
model based on improved nutrition practices. Rural farmers were involved
in training and demonstration activities related to improved nutrition
practices.
