Background

IFAD and the Government of Sudan agreed to develop a poverty alleviation project in the Gash Delta area of Kassala State known as the Gash Agricultural Scheme. In October 2002, a Sustainable Livelihoods Approach was adopted during the project inception mission and led to refocus the project design from an irrigation rehabilitation project to a livelihoods development project with equal focus on irrigated and rainfed agriculture.

A pre-formulation SLA mission took place in November 2002 to help devise the project. An SLA analysis was selected because it is a holistic method that is able to capture the different aspects of rural livelihoods, ranging from the strategies that poor people use to overcome poverty, to their strengths (human, social, physical, natural and financial capital) and achievements, to their aspirations, and to their capacities to help themselves to achieve their dreams. Focusing the enquiry on their own livelihoods and visions encourages them to take a more positive and proactive approach to their development, whilst the use of ‘appreciative enquiry’ helps the villagers to think in terms of their own capacities and strengths, rather than their weaknesses and needs. This makes it easier to help them find solutions that are based on their own abilities, and improves their confidence in their ability to do so. Although the mission team’s visits to villages were to last only five days, IFAD and the Government of Sudan agreed that the results of the work could enrich the dialogue between them at the national and state levels, as well as help in project design. IFAD budgeted US$ 60 000 for the mission.

The Mission

The mission was made up of two teams, each headed by an international consultant and consisting of two local researchers (a man and a woman), identified by IFAD’s SLA technical advisor in consultation with the Kassala Ministry of Agriculture and recruited from government and NGO agencies. Each team visited four villages, where they used a number of Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques and exercises with the villagers, including facilitated dialogue, institutional diagrams, appreciative inquiry, village walks and resource mapping. A full day of training was given to the researchers to introduce the main features of SLA and to practice some of the techniques.

Views of the local population

Local poor people who spoke with the pre-formulation mission team highlighted the following issues that they believed should be considered in the project design:

Adequate cash income. Having sufficient income is the first priority for the poorest people. They are entirely dependent on cash for their livelihood, having usually had to sell their few livestock. They would like to rebuild their herd, which has traditionally been their first source of cash, and benefit from credit schemes. Even wealthier villagers seek surplus cash to rebuild herds and to raise their household living standards. Some women in the villages have a vision of acquiring surplus cash by raising chickens and selling handicrafts. Overall, the villagers identified the following income-generating activities for which they would require further training: animal husbandry, sewing reed mats, preparing wool for knitting/crochet, rope weaving for beds and storage, making hats, preparing soap and oil, and improving charcoal manufacturing techniques. They also expressed a need for the project to assist them in gaining access to markets to sell their wares.

Agriculture and livestock. Rehabilitation of the Gash scheme with structures providing land for food crops and grazing rangeland for livestock was mentioned as a major hope everywhere. Villagers generally consider livestock and cultivation to be equally important. They frequently talked about the reintroduction of cash crops, planting trees around village grounds and within house compounds, and the introduction of new trees instead of mesquite to produce wood for furniture, housing, etc. and to provide an additional source of income. Livestock breeders who had had previous knowledge of mobile veterinary services and techniques for improving breeds through animal husbandry expressed the need for such services, along with training.

The villagers believe that rehabilitation of the irrigation system, and the construction of the embankments and bridges on the canals, will lead to better grazing and improved forestry. This, in turn, will have a positive impact on education, health care and transportation. They asked for the construction of an embankment to protect their villages and graveyards from the floods, and for the construction of water tanks to have access to a regular potable water supply.

Awareness building and education. Most women said awareness building and education were their primary concern, and highlighted requirements ranging from religious education, literacy and health information to training in handicrafts and broadening of their vision. Men also asked for education and improved awareness for themselves and for women, hoping that this would lead to a better life and to an improved ability to generate income at home and should they migrate to the cities. Priority was given by men and women to literacy and vocational education. Another observation made by many was that incorporating school gardens into children’s formal education would help respond to local nutrition needs.

Socio-economic infrastructure. The desire of all villagers for permanent settlement is based on a vision of essential services being provided within the village, including health services with clinic facilities, training of midwives, presence of a community health worker and availability of pharmaceuticals. Schools for children and adults (separate facilities for girls and boys), shops, markets, a court facility, roads, electricity, television and telecommunications are part of the vision of a better future as well as improved, permanent housing.

Strengthening the community. Within villages, there is a very strong sense of belonging because of tribal lineage and the security that it provides. Local people want to consolidate this with permanent settlement. They would like officially recognized village locations, with the associated socio-economic infrastructure under the control of the community. The current situation is a constraint to development. An improvement in people’s economic situation would eventually lead to empowerment of the poorer community members.

Institutions. Many villagers spoke of more accessible and effective institutions that respond better to their needs, particularly with respect to agriculture and livestock in the productive sector, and education and health in the social sector. Villagers firmly expressed their wish for greater transparency in their relations with administrative institutions of all types, and generally believe that their community does not have the power it should have in running its affairs.

Access to land. Villagers also communicated their frustration in relation to the land allocation system and asked that it be fairer and more regular.

Insights of the livelihoods advisers

During the Livelihoods Analysis, it became clear that there was a great deal of vested interest concerning the Gash River, its water, the surrounding land and the people who use it and rely on it. Some of these interests are complementary while others are conflictual. The project strategy should take these vested interests into account and address them by creating partnerships and promoting participation throughout the planning process. Careful consideration needs to be given to the following issues:

• The Gash flood. The influence of the Gash flood goes far beyond issues linked to irrigation and the use of floodwater. Any planning should encompass the Gash flood influence on the entire surrounding area rather than concentrating solely on the “scheme”.
• Allocation of land for irrigation. The number of people registered for land within the Gash Agricultural Scheme has increased dramatically since the scheme fell into disrepair. There is confusion between official registration, accessing an open market for irrigable land and informal land resulting from damage to the scheme’s canal system. There is also confusion over land that has been allocated as “investment” land.
• Dual importance of livestock and crop production. Villagers in the project area see livestock and crop production as equally important.
• Water requirements and grazing areas. There is increasing pressure on the agricultural area from herds associated with registered farmers on the surrounding rangeland and from people who have no land within the scheme.
• The role of women. The issue of empowering women, in terms of their decision-making roles and income-generating potential, should be taken into consideration in all aspects of the project.
• Internal and external relationships. There are complex relationships of solidarity among people within villages and their dependence on each other, the tribal system, the state and the increasing need for surplus cash. Villagers are heavily dependent on traditional representation and the power vested within local leaders as their link to external institutions.

These issues were recognized and raised independently at debriefing meetings at state and federal levels. They need to be acknowledged and addressed as early as possible within the project cycle. The mission recommends that two of the planned initiatives – land survey and population census – be carried out together to develop a more proactive role in the project design. Stakeholder partnerships would greatly benefit from participatory land use. Conducting a stakeholder analysis for the entire area would determine land use capabilities, suitability and power relations stemming from the different stakeholders and their preferences, roles and responsibilities.

Issues for project design

Human capital

• Villagers highlighted the prevalence of malaria, water-borne disease, tuberculosis and respiratory diseases. Nutritional issues seem to be of concern especially for the poorest people. There is seasonal variation of nutritional intake. The diet of local people consists almost solely of asira (sorghum porridge made with hot water), and coffee is used to some degree to suppress appetite. The decrease in livestock numbers has led to a drop in livestock product surplus and its preservation for use at different times of year. This has led to less consumption of meat and dairy products and high levels of anaemia within the population, which adversely affects the immune system.
• Physical incapacitation, combined with the lack of proper medical services, has a high impact on families’ well being and ability to sustain themselves.
• Formal educational levels are very low and illiteracy is more than 80 per cent. There is access to religious education. However, balancing education with livelihood strategies and children’s required workload is difficult. Education also needs to be across the gender and generation divides. Different strategies seem to be adopted by parents for different children: often, older male children have to support the family; girls have little access to any education since their role is to support the needs of the household.

Natural capital

• The drought of 1984-85 decimated livestock, but the number of animals subsequently increased. Lately, the number of livestock appears to be decreasing again because animals are the first source of cash. Poorer families are forced to deplete their herds because of their increasing reliance on cash to provide basic needs. As more people settle within the area and surrounding parts to the north and west, grazing resources come under greater pressure. There is a general move by pastoralists not associated with the area to hold livestock in surrounding grazing areas while waiting to take advantage of crop residue on the scheme and then moving animals towards Port Sudan for export sales to the Gulf. Livestock is also critical for transportation and water collection.
• Fuel wood and charcoal are essential. Until about ten years ago the depletion of forest resources was a problem. The trend has since been reversed with the spread of mesquite, which is now an essential part of coping strategies for poorer members of the population (i.e. collection and sale for fuel wood, and production and sale of charcoal).
• Villagers eat zisiphus fruit, which is potentially a good source of vitamin C.
• Irrigation is used in unplanned ways, due to the damaged canal system and lack of control or maintenance. The major crop is dura and it seems that varieties are chosen mainly for their taste and for the quantity of forage produced.

Social capital

• There is a good support network within villages and tribes, although there appears to be a delicate balance between solidarity and dependence.
• It is difficult to encourage people to express individual views because of the collective nature of their society.
• Competition is growing between tribal and religious hierarchies.
• Villages seem largely homogenous since they appear to depend on tribal or religious leadership to establish links with external institutions and to represent them.
• The tradition of marriage between cousins reinforces the homogeneity of villages.
• Women have few contacts outside their immediate families and little mobility outside the household precinct.
• Female circumcision is practiced throughout the area.

Physical capital

• A growing number of vehicles are used to transport crops around the scheme and to markets. They are also used as public transport.
• Tractors and other cultivation equipment are also being used more within the irrigated area and for the preparation of large areas of rainfed farming.
• The existing piped water is critical to a large proportion of the population but the system is poorly maintained and inefficient. There is mesquite root damage and informal tapping of the system.
• Damage to the irrigation infrastructure has created flooding difficulties for some permanent settlements. Bunds have had to be put in place to protect and divert water.

Financial capital

• Cash is critical for the poorest people and is required for all aspects of life. The minimum daily income required is estimated to be in the region of SD150–200. Labour earnings are becoming more important for the whole population. Only minority tribes used to resort to this, but as the need for cash becomes more urgent, all are now seeking such opportunities. Most employment seems to be local but as needs grow, Port Sudan and Torouk are becoming popular destinations.
• Livestock is the first source of cash. When the herds are depleted, people either migrate seasonally, start producing charcoal or rely on the traditional supporting networks.
• Credit exists through local shops and through families.

Women’s empowerment and gender equity

There is a marked difference between the life of the women of the main tribe and that of women from other social groups in the area. The former remain in the home, and their activities are limited to home care, stone grinding, sorghum, cooking, and looking after children. In the last two decades, chickens have been introduced through various projects and some women raise a few chickens housed in a tent. Women used to be quite busy making samn (ghee) from the milk of the family cattle but the reduced number of livestock as well as their low milk production have put an end to this activity except for the wealthiest families. Women make all the items used for the home: roof, bed, floor mats, etc. They have no activities outside of their household, and it would appear that they spend many idle hours. Illiteracy is a major problem among women of the main tribe, most of whom do not speak Arabic.

Only the poorest women of the main tribe have any activities outside the home. When economic necessity is pressing, these women may work locally as wage labourers in agriculture, primarily in harvesting and, to a lesser extent, in weeding. They are sometimes allocated land through the zakat system (a fund providing assistance to the poorer segment of the population) although this needs to be verified. Women’s economic involvement would make a significant impact on improving household living standards, and even more so among the poorest families. The project should establish the basis for the development of educational and economic activities that are adapted to the tribal cultural framework, while providing a significant income for women and their households. Women’s seclusion and lack of activities in the main tribe are explained by cultural factors and the strong belief among this group that the man is fully responsible for providing for his wife and children. Hence, women’s economic activities are interpreted as demonstrating men’s failure to fulfil their responsibilities and are considered culturally unacceptable, except in cases of extreme poverty. By contrast, women from the other groups are fully involved in economic activities, working in agriculture, owning and running micro-enterprises in food processing and marketing, making and selling handicrafts, and taking care of livestock.

Women from all tribes within the area are particularly keen to find ways of accessing education of one sort or another.

Land tenure

The current system is strongly affected by vested interests and is under the control of the most powerful elements in the main tribe society. Although there are committee members from other social groups when these have registered land, the overall distribution is strongly biased in favour of the more powerful who can take large areas for themselves and then have them cultivated by sharecroppers or even by wage labourers. They can also redistribute plots among others. The traditional system of distribution of basic food supplies by the sheikhs to the poorest members of the community serves as a justification for the sheikhs’ control over far larger pieces of cultivable land than are allocated to ordinary farmers. This system helps to perpetuate a cycle of dependence by the poorer people, and political power and control by the hereditary sheikhs.

Land reform is currently seen as one of the major interventions of the project. Such reform should benefit the poorest people. But villagers consider the direction of land reform to be a major issue. While wealthier villagers favour permanent titling of clearly identifiable and stable plots, poorer farmers see value in continuing with a more equitably and fairly implemented annual allocation of land. Annual allocation ensures that the farmers receive irrigated land each year, or at least more frequently, provided the allocation system is not open to abuse by those who select the farmers. Such a system can also ensure that most or even all farmers are allocated land annually, though not necessarily in large plots. The drawback is that farmers have less interest in caring for the land, and are unlikely to plant permanent crops or any crops that need more than one season for maturing, which would happen under a system of permanent allocation of land.

Land reform issues are particularly sensitive because the project area is an immigration zone. Determining eligibility for land allocation and the selection of those responsible for it are matters that must be thought out with great care.

The list of stakeholders to be included in the proposed consultation concerning the land issue includes many of the wealthier and more powerful people in the project zone. If an equitable land allocation and distribution system is to be identified and agreed upon for project implementation, it will be essential to devise mechanisms which give a strong voice to the poorer farmers and somehow counterbalance the disproportionate influence of more powerful people. The fact that the groups of stakeholders may have competing or incompatible interests will require political decision-making at the highest level at some point in the process.

Project objectives

The overall objective of the project will be to regenerate the livelihoods of as many poor people as possible in and around the Gash delta, compatible with the efficient and sustainable use of its land and water resources and based upon a shared vision of development and stability of the related institutional arrangements. This will be achieved by ensuring an efficient, equitable and sustainable operation of the Gash Agricultural Scheme and its integration into the local economy.

The project has two cross-cutting areas of concern, which are described below.

Upholding a shared vision of development

A major training programme will be part of the institutional support component and include in-service training and assistance from the advisors in the Project Coordination Unit. A number of actions would be taken to minimize any reluctance of the tribal leaders to cooperate with land tenure reforms and irrigation scheme rationalization. These include: stakeholder consultation and negotiation over clear entry and exit rules from the scheme; the autonomous management structure of the Gash Agricultural Scheme, with clear delineation of responsibilities and authority between the Government, the native administration and the scheme; a phased reform-rehabilitation process; and the development of livestock production – an important source of livelihood and prestige for the leaders.

Women’s empowerment and gender equity

The gender situation in the project area varies according to the socio-ethnic groups. In some social groups, women’s economic role is considerable, but in others many women live a secluded life at home and do not participate actively in farming or in livestock husbandry. It will therefore be essential to have a diversified approach to ensure that both men and women benefit equitably from project investments. Although it will be extremely difficult to achieve such gender equity, women’s living conditions can be enhanced and they can gain significant benefits through a carefully designed programme. In this programme, specific activities that can directly affect women’s livelihoods and their empowerment will be developed to reach the most isolated women and gradually bring them into the mainstream of social and economic life. The focus will initially be on the poorest women heads of household whose economic and social situation is worst. Project financing will be allocated to training and income-generating activities. The Government of Sudan will ensure that women are represented in the organization and management of the project, in particular in operational and decision-making posts of the Project Coordination Unit and the project executive board. The government will also ensure that gender-equity considerations are integrated into all project activities during the project implementation period, that women participate in all project activities and receive appropriate benefit from the project outputs.

Impact of the SLA mission on project design

The appraisal report stated at the outset that the project would need to address a number of critical issues that the SLA analysis had highlighted, including the need for: a balance between agriculture, livestock and forestry; a definition of the right to land; and the role that the project should have in regard to social issues.

Another important and positive feature of the SLA mission was its engagement with people at all levels. In particular, the introduction of SLA to officials and communities alike was a step towards a changed approach to development at the village level, and to a recognition of the importance of linkages at all levels to ensure sustainability of livelihoods.

The project appraisal report reflected many of the team’s recommendations, particularly in the project poverty reduction strategy, which comprises the following elements:

• rehabilitate the irrigation scheme in concert with the introduction of new land tenure and water management arrangements to ensure that the maximum number of poor people receive irrigated smallholdings of an economically viable size;
• support livestock husbandry activities to improve animal health and productivity;
• include women among the beneficiaries of land allocation; and
• empower and build the capacity of landless households through interventions such as supplying start-up capital for some families, thus enabling them to engage in economically viable activities. The empowerment process should include measures to:
  • provide women with functional literacy training
  • raise men’s awareness and recognition of women’s roles
  • rehabilitate the existing domestic water supply pipeline and assist communities outside the system to establish viable community-based domestic water supplies
  • support community-level institutions, including domestic water users’ associations, irrigation water users’ associations and range management associations.

Subsequently, IFAD designed the project with the following components, which respond in some measure to most of the recommendations that came out of the SLA analysis:

Irrigation infrastructure rehabilitation and regular potable water supply

The project addresses problems related to drought and overstocking through its components and participatory approach, with emphasis on enhanced water supply for human consumption and livestock and water-conserving structures on the range. Improving the irrigation network and field layout as part of the rehabilitation programme of the area will enhance the efficiency of water use and the capacity for irrigated crop production. Indeed, as revealed by the Environmental Impact Assessment Study, the project will have a positive impact on the environment by restoring the operation of the system to its original design when the flood scheme was conceived. As such the project is environmentally friendly.

The rehabilitation of the irrigation scheme is set to be implemented in concert with the re-allocation of viable leaseholds to eligible tenants and organization of farmers into water users' associations responsible for land allocation, water management and collection of water fees. The establishment of legally recognized water users’ associations, made up of representatives from all levels of the community and including women, will be a condition for gaining access to project activities, which include security of land holdings, land levelling, mesquite clearance, improvement of masga¹ and sub-masga intake and the desiltation of canals. The formation of these water users’ associations – building on existing forms and rules of water management (with masga sheikhs and gura’a sheikhs) and strengthening them to better identify and prioritize the needs of project participants – should motivate farmers to contribute to the costs of investments in irrigation and water management structures or to assume the responsibilities for their costs of operation and maintenance. Measures and procedures for tenancy reform will lead to equity and security of land tenure. Moreover, labour-intensive works, and the reintroduction of profitable cash crops to augment staple food production should also help beneficiaries to meet water management costs. To ensure the active participation of communities and their organizations, the project will provide support services including the training of the water users’ associations and extension agents. Operational functions at block and masga levels will be the responsibility of water users’ associations. The Gash Agricultural Scheme will ensure the supply of water to the main canals and masga outlets.

The project involves a change from the present three-course rotation to a two-course rotation based on an economically viable farm size of three feddans under a cropping model of one feddan of sorghum and two feddans of fodder crops (or a cash crop of farmer’s choice). This will enable some 30 000 to 40 000 tenants to have access to irrigated land on the scheme. While the change of land allocation and rotation may accommodate the existing tenants, it cannot absorb the entire primary target group, including those who are currently landless. This supports the view that the mechanisms for land policy and the settlement of land rights will need to be fair and based on clear eligibility criteria for selection of farmers. Similarly, allocation of wet lands will need to be based on clear prioritization criteria and transparency. A legal committee will be formed to establish land rights. Responsibility for land allocation will be vested in an independent body and negotiated among the respective stakeholders.

For drinking water supply, the project will pay close attention to health considerations in regard to effluent disposal, drainage and water-borne disease control. A complex drainage system will not be necessary because most soils are highly permeable, and household outlets will not be established. Each communal outlet will be provided with adequate drainage, through soakage pits or vegetable garden enterprise, to ensure that ponds of effluent are not created.

Animal production and rangeland management

Given the villagers’ emphasis on the importance of livestock as opposed to merely crop cultivation, the project includes a component to improve animal health services, provide improved animal breeds and develop a sound land-use policy by rehabilitating community-owned livestock water facilities and by building water containment and spreading structures. The project will support activities to reduce the incidence of livestock disease and increase production by breed improvement and restoration of livestock numbers among disadvantaged households. A sound land-use policy will be developed through rehabilitation of community stock water facilities, construction of water containment and spreading structures, and management of mesquite invasion.

Veterinary services will be upgraded with an integrated veterinary centre and two mobile clinics. The project will initiate training to tribal groups in preventative animal health care, simple curative procedures and improved animal husbandry practices. A revolving fund for veterinary drugs will be established. Assistance in restocking of animals will be provided, especially to the priority target group (farmers owning fewer than five small ruminants or one head of cattle), and focus will be given to increase milk and dairy production.

A comprehensive land use plan for the area will be developed, taking into account the different uses of land: agricultural, pastures and forestry. The water conservation works and the establishment of strategic water points will enable this plan to be implemented in a sustainable way. Mesquite eradication will be accompanied by creating nurseries, with a view toward reforestation with tree legumes and trees with extensive root systems. These activities will be geared towards the landless and women’s groups.

Community development, capacity building and empowerment

This project component will support activities that improve the access of local communities to safe and reliable domestic water and that improve the livelihood options of households with no registered land. Training will be a fundamental element, covering a broad range of areas, such as: functional literacy; hygiene, nutrition, midwifery and health care; group management skills; and specialized skills such as paraveterinary services, agricultural extension and forestry. The emphasis will be on women, and the activities will be identified together with community groups. The project will build strategic alliances with local leaders for all of these activities and will seek to enhance the outreach capacity of community-based organizations and local councils.

Financial services and marketing

This component will help to provide villagers with the resources they need to increase their productivity. For example, credit lines will be established and community-based investment credit will be set up to enable community organizations and individuals to purchase farm machinery, food processing equipment, livestock and other essentials.

Institutional support

To ensure that the project is implemented transparently and effectively, water users’ associations, irrigation scheme managers, local extension officers and relevant government ministries and agencies will receive financial support and training to upgrade their skills. The administration of the irrigation network and the range resources should gradually be devolved to the users associations, while government agencies would maintain responsibility for service provision, regulation and arbitration.

From the Appraisal Report “…Dialogue with stakeholders was constantly maintained through repeated meetings in which community views were expressed, the concerns of the poor voiced, available options explained, and choices made at each step of the design process modified or validated. This is…how livestock development and social services became as important as irrigation in the project development strategy…Moreover, such changes in design were accompanied by a broader change in the way concerned policy makers and development practitioners perceive the issues at stake.”

Limitations of the SLA analysis

The SLA analysis was undertaken with a number of constraints and limitations. As these may be useful to consider for future missions of this sort, they are listed below.

• Time constraints. The entire mission took place during Ramadan, which limited the amount of time that the study team could meet with the villagers.

• Security. Due to recent security problems in the project area, it was not possible for the team to spend the night in the communities as had been originally planned. In this way, they were treated more like visiting officials than as guests.

• Seasonal bias. The mission took place towards the end of the cultivation season, when many farmers were away with their livestock and thus unavailable. It was also the dry season, which meant that health conditions were better than they would have been during the wet season.

• Lack of previous SLA experience. The SLA approach and participatory enquiry methods were relatively new to the researchers and the people visited. The role of the advisers was greater than would have been ideal. The change of focus – from a ‘questionnaire’ approach to a deeper exchange of views – was not fully achieved.

• Community expectations. There had been many other inquiries and visits from outsiders to these and other communities. Community members were fully aware of this and many had expectations of immediate benefits. Others were quite cynical about possible results. These attitudes made it difficult to focus conversations on strengths and weaknesses.

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Endnotes

1/ Water management masga sheikhs are selected and employed by Gash Agricultural Scheme management to supervise the distribution of the spate flows. In parallel, gura’a sheikhs are selected by farmer consensus and are responsible for the activities of the groups of farmers that have secured irrigated land in a specific masga.