Completion evaluation

The geographic area covered by the project coincides with the twelve districts of the Governorate of Sidi Bouzid, totalling 755 500 hectares. In 1994 the total population in the Governorate was 377 700 inhabitants, of whom 78% living in rural areas. The cultivated area is 412 000 hectares, with 33 000 farms (381 000 ha) plus the Government's "organised sector" (31 000 ha). It consists of plateaux intercepted by rocky ridges. The climate is semi-arid to arid in the south (300-200 mm). Agriculture is primarily based on rainfed tree crops, localised but dynamic irrigation and sheep production. Rainfed cereal crops cover large areas but production is unpredictable. Until some forty years ago the region was dominated by cereal crops and extensive sheep farming.

Intensive irrigation was practised on 27 700 ha in 1996 compared to only 12 000 ha in 1984. Part of the existing area has been developed under Public Irrigation Schemes (PPI 2 900 ha, borehole irrigation). The rest consists of privately owned farms which use shallow-well irrigation (24 800 ha). Other areas partly use spate irrigation (8 750 ha). The PPIs include 1 305 holdings and the shallow well subsector accounts for 6 750. Most of these farms, which also practise rainfed cultivation, are considered to be small or medium-sized.

Project design and objectives

Target group

The Sidi Bouzid irrigation project stems from another, wider-based, project to develop the Governorate's "small and medium-sized holdings", using rainfed and irrigated cultivation methods. The original project was scaled down following the World Bank's project appraisal (rainfed activities were not considered profitable). The objective of the revised project was to rehabilitate the existing Public Irrigation Schemes (PPIs), create new ones, rehabilitate shallow well equipment and develop spate irrigation. Since irrigated farms were primarily considered to be small or medium-sized enterprises, the target group implicitly covered all the rehabilitated or equipped areas.

Objectives and components

The objective of the project was to make better use of the existing irrigation infrastructures (PPIs and wells) and to enhance water resources with rehabilitation and extension measures. Spate irrigation installations were mainly designed to recharge the principal groundwater reservoir tapped, that of Sidi Bouzid, so as to compensate for excessive withdrawals from the shallow wells. At the same time, more effective institutional support was to be given to irrigation management by strengthening the capacity of OMVPI (Irrigation scheme development service) with regard to maintenance, monitoring, the extension service and the organisation of users.

The project components were:

Development of irrigation infrastructure

Rehabilitation of eight PPIs (1 200 ha).

Creation of one PPI (240 ha).

Rehabilitation of one spate irrigation scheme, setting up 240 ha of new schemes and feasibility study covering an area of 4 200 ha.

Rehabilitation of 700 shallow wells and provision of credit to equip some 450 wells.

Construction of 60 km of tracks serving the irrigation areas.

Institutional strengthening of OMVPI

Strengthening of PPI maintenance and emergency repair service.

Strengthening of the extension service.

Creation of two mechanisation units. 

Boosting marketing support services.

Strengthening of assistance capacity for the supply of inputs.

Technical assistance.

The Ministry of Agriculture was to entrust project implementation to four operators:

The major hydraulic works department of the Ministry of Agriculture for spate irrigation studies.

The roads department of the Ministry of Equipment for rural tracks.

Local banks (BNT, STB and Banque du Sud) for credit matters.

OMVPI for all the other components.

Expected effects and assumptions

The area of the PPIs was expected to increase from 902 to 1 250 ha with an increment in the volume of water distributed from 600 to 2 400 m3/ha. Irrigation efficiency was to rise from 40 to 60%. PPIs would see their fruit production increase by 3 000 t, vegetables by 1 000 t and fodder crops by 7 500 t. Areas with shallow well irrigation would produce an additional 15 000 t of vegetables and 6 000 t of fodder crops.

PPIs were to be extended to 560 farmers (50% of the total in 1984), surface wells would benefit 1 500 farmers (close to 50% of the total in 1984), and spate irrigation would concern 500 farmers. The average income of small and medium-sized PPI holdings would increase from TND 480 to 960 and from TND 1 800 to 3 565, respectively. The average income of holdings using surface wells for irrigation was expected to grow by 50%.

Evaluation

The mission had at its disposal the information contained in the annual reports, the mid-term evaluation report (1987) and the final appraisal report drawn up by CRDA in January 1996. The quality of the information was affected by the fact that numerous unclassified documents were inaccessible following the dissolution of OMVPI and by insufficient monitoring and evaluation data. The information was integrated by field work and special farmer surveys during the final mission as well as during the preparatory missions. A simulation study of the effect of the spate irrigation structures on the recharging of the aquifer  was also carried out as part of this work.

Implementation context

The principal change during the project was that of the institutional framework. Indeed, the dissolution of OMVPI occurred in 1989 and its responsibilities were transferred to the regional Commissariat (CRDA) representing the Ministry of Agriculture. Said transfer was accompanied by the liberalisation of the economy and the Government's disengagement from some of its functions. The components of direct Government intervention (mechanisation, marketing, inputs) were thus no longer justified. The mid-term evaluation, carried out prior to the changes, formulated various recommendations that were taken into account. The project, originally planned to last six years, extended its resources over a period of 10 years (1984-93). The extended closing date was possible thanks to remainders resulting from costs that were lower than those forecast and from local currency funds derived from exchange rate differences. These remainders were allocated to the rehabilitation and extension of PPIs which had not originally been planned and to an extension of the spate irrigation component.

Project achievements

The dollar comparison of forecast costs (USD 16.3 million) and effective costs (USD 16 million) shows only a slight difference. A notable difference, however, appears when evaluated in Tunisian dinars (TND), the effective cost in TND (13.0 million) being 40% higher than the forecast cost (10 million). This can be explained by a weakening in the value of the TND. The structure of the effective costs is also different from that forecast. Hydraulic infrastructure thus absorbed 56% of the costs instead of the expected 39%, rural tracks 11% compared to 15% and extension services 6% instead of 10%. IFAD financed 52% of the costs instead of the forecast 45%.

From 1984 to 1989 total project expenditure and IFAD's loan accounted for respectively 67% and 35% of OMVPI's cumulative investment budget. During the CRDA period (1990-1993), these figures were 16% and 8%. In terms of the OMVPI and CRDA cumulative investment budget, from 1984 to 1993, these rates were 35% and 17%. The beneficiaries were not involved in funding the public investments (PPIs and spate irrigation). However, their contribution, assessed by the mission, amounted to 13% of the credit for shallow wells. Including the latter self-financing, according to the project accounts the actual cost of the project was TND 14.1 million, instead of 13.9 million.

Rehabilitation and creation of Public Irrigation Schemes. The project rehabilitated 9 of the 10 PPIs created between 1958 and 1965, i.e., 1 554 hectares. The project also created 3 PPIs (492 ha equivalent to 43% of the area in 11 PPIs created since 1985). Overall, the project concerned 12 of the 21 PPIs, i.e., 2 046 ha or 74% of the total PPI area. After rehabilitation, the pumped volumes in the pertinent PPIs increased from 1.4 to 4.8 million m3. The threshold of 2 million m3 was however only reached in 1994 (2,6 million m3), when the effects of the World Bank investments for the electrification of pumps were added to IFAD's actions. The volumes distributed to the plots rose, on average, from 950 m3/ha to 1 550 m3/ha, which was below the forecast increase (2 400 m3/ha). The technical results were poorer than expected. In the three PPIs created by the project, water consumption is still less than the exploitable discharge, due to – hopefully temporary - under-utilisation of the infrastructure. The last two PPIs were created following good technical standards, and included certain innovations in the distribution of water throughout the network.

Spate irrigation schemes. This is a traditional type of irrigation in the region but with poor infrastructure it is not very effective. During the project design phase, only one modern scheme (Wadi El Hachim, 1965) was envisaged to irrigate 3 000 hectares of land. Damaged by a flood in 1969, it no longer irrigated more than 500 hectares. It was rehabilitated by the project but insufficient rainfall in the catchment area showed that the infrastructure was over-dimensioned. A partial solution consisted in irrigating its downstream area (500 ha) from Wadi Fekka of which Wadi El Hachim is a tributary and which has a catchment area that is five times larger. Rehabilitation costs were 205 TND/ha. The development of irrigation in the Wadi Fekka area went far beyond the forecasts (some 4 000 ha instead of 500 ha). Although the pilot project analysis phase was "skipped", the technical achievements are satisfactory. The development cost varies, according to the scheme considered, from 1 200 and 2 000 TND/ha. The maintenance of these infrastructures is their major long-term problem. Users, forming water-user groups, only pay between 2 and 3 TND/ha while the actual cost is 19 TND/ha.

Irrigation development using shallow wells. During the design phase priority was to be given to the existing wells while drastically restricting the number of new wells owing to groundwater overdraft, particularly at Sidi Bouzid. The spate irrigation schemes were to contribute to recharging the acquifer. The first action envisaged by the project was the creation of OMVPI technical units to clean and rehabilitate the wells. This action was unsuccessful and the equipment used by the units was passed on to private farmers. The main action, however, was to provide an equipment loan for wells. Contrary to the forecasts, this loan was mainly used to equip 813 new wells. From 1984 to 1992 the number of wells in the Governorate increased from 3 200 to 6 800. FOSDA, the World Bank and IFAD financed 2 332 wells, accounting for 65% of the 3 600 new wells. This change in the project was the response to the very strong demand from the farmers and constituted an important economic revitalisation factor. It did mean, however, that the groundwater management problem remained completely unresolved.

Rural tracks. The project implemented the planned 60 km of tracks, but at a cost of 25 000 TND/km compared to the allocated 11 000. The difference is due to a change in the technical standard (asphalting of 23 km). These rural tracks/roads are located mainly in areas that are already well served by roads.

Agricultural credit. Credit was a key instrument in financing the project but it ultimately only concerned shallow wells. The total estimated investment of TND 2.19 million in 1983 was to include 25% self-financed by farmers, a subsidy of 14%, and 61% credit. At the end of the project the total investment was evaluated at TND 2.41 million, of which 13% self-financed by farmers, 38% Government subsidies, and 49% consisted of loans (financed by IFAD). The loans financed 853 operations totalling TND 1.19 million. It was managed by BNT - subsequently merged with BNA - STB and Banque du Sud. All the operations were completed but the repayment rate is only of the order of 23%. Of the borrowers 97% have outstanding payments. The loans were allocated without land collateral. In the likely assumption that the reimbursements remain unpaid, 87% of the cost of developing the shallow wells will have been financed by subsidies and by an involuntary grant corresponding to the amount of the uncollected debts.

Strengthening of institutional support. The funds allocated to this component were used for the following operations:

Creation of two OMVPI units responsible for PPI management.

Farm mechanisation. The two mechanisation centres set up ceased to operate in 1989. During the mid-term mission they were only operating at 50% of their potential. Their equipment was passed on to SONAM.

Provision of subsidised inputs. The 15 stores envisaged were implemented. They stopped operating in 1990 with the liberalisation of the input trade. The stores were converted into depots for the territorial extension units.

Marketing support. Three existing collection centres have been equipped and three new centres have been built. These centres worked at a loss for two years and disappeared with the dissolution of OMVPI.

Extension services. The infrastructure and facilities were implemented, thus making it possible to provide one extension officer for each 197 farmers (compared to 1 per 250 prior to the project). Since 1990, the advisory function for irrigated farming is no longer distinguished from CRDA's overall extension service.

Technical assistance. This has mainly helped to improve OMPVI's management system. It was not possible to "integrate" the improvements in the CRDA, except by maintaining an accounts unit responsible for the IFAD project. Assistance provided in monitoring and evaluation had no lasting impact.

Project effects

Effects on the target group. The beneficiaries were chosen following a "spatial" logic in the PPIs and spate irrigation schemes - all farms included in these schemes being "integrated" - and a "demand" logic for shallow wells. For the shallow well component, 48% of the credit went to farmers with a total (rainfed + irrigated) area of less than 10 ha while 21.5% was allocated to farms of more than 20 hectares. With regard to the allocation of loans it was observed that beneficiaries with more than 5 ha of irrigated land (24.7% of the total) own 44.5% of the irrigated areas receiving the credit. Beneficiaries with farms of 2 to 5 ha (63.5% of the total) own 51.7% of these areas, the remainder owning farms of less than 2 ha (11.9% of the beneficiaries). The beneficiaries totalled 890. The PPI component included 1 024 beneficiaries: 14.9% in the over-20 ha category (rainfed + irrigated), 53% had farms of 5 to 10 ha and 32% had less than 5 ha. It was observed that 9% of the farmers own in excess of 5 ha in the PPIs (covering 34.1% of the PPI area) while 61.2% own 2 ha of irrigated land (27.7% of the PPI area). In the spate irrigation schemes, it is estimated that 32% of the 1 000-odd beneficiaries who receive water on a regular basis have farms of less than 5 ha and 54% have farms of 5 to 20 hectares. The average area applying spate irrigation is 4 hectares. The beneficiaries of the irrigation project are involved in the management of public infrastructure through water-user groups. The latter are a recent creation and their operation is still erratic.

Effects on yields. The area equipped for irrigation (using PPIs, wells and spate irrigation) on the farms involved in the project has risen from 2 041 ha to 9 181 hectares. The latter area comprises an effectively irrigable area of 7 953 hectares. The cultivated area is 8 776 hectares. In the PPIs, the overall efficiency of irrigation has risen from 40 to 55%. In the areas irrigated by shallow wells, the volume of water reaching the plants is in the order of 3 400 m3/ha (compared to 1 500/2 000 m3/ha without the project). In the spate irrigation schemes, the average volume of water used is of the order of 3 000 m3/ha. Yields have increased notably with improved irrigation and a more rational use of inputs.

Effects on production. Additional production in the irrigated sectors involved in the project is estimated at 5 956 t for olives (compared to the forecast 7 610), 2 363 t for fruit trees (2 049 forecast), 32 880 t for market garden produce (16 050 expected), 4 235 t of fodder (14 141 forecast) and 4 358 t of cereals. Farmers have changed from fodder crops to market garden produce.

Effects on income and employment. The farm models show substantial improvements. In the PPIs, family income from an average farm (without off-farm income) has risen from TND 2 414 prior to the project to TND 3 964; the remuneration of a day's work has increased from TND 13.4 to 18.9. On farms using irrigation water from new wells, the family income has increased from TND 1 192 to TND 6 569 while remuneration for a day's work has risen from TND 10.2 to 19.5. On PPI farms, income from irrigated production accounts for [compared to that from rainfed agriculture] around 50 to 60% of the total. On farms with shallow wells, the income from irrigated farming accounts for 75 to 80% of the total.

Rate of return on investments. The overall rate of return of the project is 31.8%, more than twice the original estimate of 13%. The rate of return on the investments for each component is 23.2% for rehabilitated PPIs, 10.1% for new PPIs, 39.3% for shallow wells and 31.3% for spate irrigation.

Effects on natural resources. One of the principal expected effects of the project concerned recharging the Sidi Bouzid aquifer through spate irrigation. This effect was only partially appreciated but the problem would need to be analysed in a different context today based on hydrogeological knowledge that was unavailable in 1984. Indeed, the water resources are greater than expected notably because of the continuity of the shallow aquifer with the deep aquifer. The drawdown observed in the wells is therefore not an indicator of depletion. But another risk emerged: salinization by the downstream aquifer if the increase in withdrawals beyond a certain threshold coincides with a succession of years of drought. This risk can be minimised through strict groundwater management. Soil salinization in the spate irrigation zones is also a risk which could be kept under control through improved drainage. Another risk lies in the indirect effects of water pollution from a paper mill outside the project area at Kasserine.

Recommendations

Recommendations for PPIs

For PPI rehabilitation,  replace the case-by-case "repairs" approach adopted during the project by a selective "rehabilitation" strategy, taking into account each PPI as a whole.

For PPI management, encourage a new relationship between the Government and the users, the latter taking collective responsibility for management functions. The role of the Government should be limited to monitoring groundwater management, ensuring the consistency of overall projects, and overall regulation. The creation of new PPIs by the Government should only be contemplated when the operation is beyond the group or individual capacities of private entrepreneurs. 

Recommendations for shallow wells

Encourage collective accountability for groundwater management, for instance by promoting water-user groups.

Devise an electrification programme for shallow-well pumps in order to reduce the cost of water, improve pumping efficiency and provide the means to control withdrawals. The short-medium term cost of electrification should be measured against the risk of well-water irrigated farms losing their competitiveness and against the risk of irreversible salinization of the aquifer as a result of uncontrollable withdrawals.

Recommendations for spate irrigation

Put greater emphasis on the economic benefit of spate irrigation and de-emphasise its role in recharging the aquifer.

Improve the dimensioning of infrastructures according to the potential of the catchment areas.

Ensure improved maintenance of the infrastructure by users, particularly by financing a maintenance fund during good years.

Leave users to solve by themselves the problems of distributing water among the plots. The distribution of the land among the traditional social groups must not be overlooked and the irrigation network must be adapted accordingly.

Launch a global study of the development potential of spate irrigation, taking into account the long-term construction of Khangat Zazia dam.

Recommendations for institutional support

Set up consultation mechanisms, encourage technical services adopt an "integrated" and multidisciplinary approach in their work. Introduce systems to disseminate information on the actions and results obtained in each sector.

Improve adaptation of national extension strategy to local needs and conditions and draw up programmes with users rather than on the basis of "national orientations" originating from central agencies.

Rethink credit mechanisms in order to better adapt them to farmers' needs, to the (notably collective) guaranties they are able to give and to their repayment capacity.

Set up a monitoring and evaluation system that will make better use of the capacity to adapt already shown the by CRDA agents.